Contract
第四部分
第十五條 (法律上之平等地位)
1.締約各國應給予男女在法律面前平等的地位。
2.締約各國應在公民事務1上,給予婦女與男子同等的法律行為能力,以及行使這種行為能力的相同機會。特別應給予婦女簽訂合同2和管理財產的平等權利,並在法院和法庭訴訟的各個階段給予平等待遇。
3.締約各國同意,旨在限制婦女法律行為能力的所有合同和其他任何具有法律效力的私人文件,應一律視為無效。
4.締約各國在有關人身移動和自由擇居的法律方面,應給予男女相同的權利。
一、 背景及概說
本條旨在給予男女在法律上相同的地位。在民事法上應給予相同的法律行為能力,得以簽訂契約及管理財產,並應具有相同的訴訟權利和能力,使其在權利受到侵害時得以在法院進行救濟。除此之外,許多習俗和文化都將婦女視為父親或是丈夫之附屬物,沒有自由選擇居所的權利,並被拘束行動,本條旨在確保前述權利獲得保障不受侵害。
在某些國家,婦女的訴訟權受到法律限制,或難以得到法律諮詢(access to legal advice)、沒有能力向法院申訴(seek redress from the courts)。在一些國家中,婦女作為證人的地位(status as a witness)和其證詞並不如男性那樣受到尊重或不如男性有份量(less respect or weight)。這種法律或習俗限制了婦女有效地謀求或保有其平等財產份額(equal share of property)的權利,削弱了(diminish)她們作為其所在社區的獨立、負責和受尊重成員的地位。當國家法律限制婦女的法律行為能力(legal capacity)或允許個人或機構的這種做法時,實際上就剝奪了女性與男性平等的權利,限制了女性撫養自己和其他人的能力。(見一般性建議21/8)
二、 我國相關法規例示
我國現行民法於 2002 年大幅修改夫妻之婚姻財產制,修法前之法定財產制為「聯合財產制」,將夫妻結婚時屬於夫妻之財產、婚姻存續中所取得的財產,稱為聯合財產,對於聯合財產雖然夫妻各自保有所有權,但是其管理權、使用收
1 條文原文的辭彙為 civil matters,從上下文之脈絡應譯為「民事事件」
2 我國將 contract 譯為「契約」
益權,依照舊法原則上仍屬於夫,違反男女平等原則。2002 年修法後,將法定財產制改為以分別財產精神的制度,原則上夫妻之財產各自擁有所有權,各自管
理使用收益處分,並且考慮無工作之配偶對於婚姻財產的貢獻,本於夫妻類似合夥關係之精神和家務有價的觀念,納入自由處分金之規定,讓夫妻在家庭生活費用外,得協議一定數額之金錢,供夫或妻自由處分。
【與本條相關之一般性建議】一般性建議第21號
【前文引用之一般性建議】
一般性建議 21/8
在有些國家,婦女提出訴訟的權利受到法律限制,或受到難以得到法律諮詢、沒有能力向法院申訴的限制。在其他一些國家,婦女作為證人的地位和其證詞並不如男子那樣受到尊重,或不如男子那麼有份量。這種法律或習俗限制了婦女有效地謀求或保有其平等財產份額的權利,削弱了她們作為其所在社區的獨立、負責和受尊重成員的地位。當國家法律限制婦女的法律行為能力或允許個人或機構的這種做法時,實際上就剝奪了婦女與男子平等的權利,限制了婦女養活自己和其受撫養人的能力。
※聯合國官方英文版
A woman's right to bring litigation is limited in some countries by law or by her access to legal advice and her ability to seek redress from the courts. In others, her status as a witness or her evidence is accorded less respect or weight than that of a man. Such laws or customs limit the woman's right effectively to pursue or retain her equal share of property and diminish her standing as an independent, responsible and valued member of her community. When countries limit a woman's legal capacity by their laws, or permit individuals or institutions to do the same, they are denying women their rights to be equal with men and restricting women's ability to provide for themselves and their dependents.
第十六條
1.締約各國應採取一切適當措施,消除在有關婚姻和家庭關係的一切事務上對婦女的歧視,並特別應保證婦女在男女平等的基礎上:
(a)有相同的締結婚約的權利;
(b)有相同的自由選擇配偶和非經本人自由表示、完全同意不締結婚約的權利;
(c)在婚姻存續期間以及解除婚姻關係時,有相同的權利和義務;
(d)不論婚姻狀況如何,在有關子女的事務上,作為父母親有相同的權利和義務在任何情形下,均應以子女的利益為重;
(e)有相同的權利自由負責地決定子女人數和生育間隔,並有機會使婦女獲得行使這種權利的知識、教育和方法;
(f)在監護、看管、受托和收養子女或類似的制度方面,如果國家法規有這些觀念的話,有相同的權利和義務。但在任何情形下,均應以子女的利益為重;
(g)夫妻有相同的個人權利,包括選擇姓氏、專業和職業的權利;
(h)配偶雙方在財產的所有、取得、經營、管理、享有、處置方面,不論是無償的或是收取價值酬報的,都具有相同的權利。
2.童年訂婚和結婚應不具法律效力,並應採取一切必要行動,包括制訂法律,規定結婚最低年齡,並規定婚姻必頇向正式機構登記。
一、背景及概說
有史以來,人類的公私生活受到不同的看待和管理。在所有社會中,在傳統上職司私人或家庭領域任務的婦女,其對社會的貢獻長期以來被貶低。(見一般性建議21/11) 由於這類活動對社會的存續而言是極寶貴的(invaluable),因此沒有任何正當理由(no justification)得以對其採用不同且具歧視性的法律或習俗。在許多國家,婦女沒有取得資源的平等機會(equal access to resources),不能享有家庭中和社會上的平等地位。即使存在有法律上的平等(de jure equality),所有的社會都為婦女指定了(assign)被視為是低下的不同角色 (different roles)。這樣就違反了 CEDAW、特別是第16 條以及第2、5和24條內所載公正和平等的原則(principles of justice and equality)。(見一般性建議21/12)
家庭的形式和概念因國家而異,甚至一國之內不同地區也不相同。不論其形式如何,也不論一國之內的法律制度、宗教、習俗或傳統如何,在法律上和在私人生活中,必頇按照如CEDAW第2條所規定的對所有人平等和公正的原則對待婦
女。(見一般性建議21/13)有一些國家有一夫多妻(polygamy)的習俗,CEDAW委員會認為一夫多妻婚姻與男女平等的權利相牴觸,會給婦女和受其撫養之人帶來嚴重的情感和經濟方面的後果, 這種婚姻應予抑制和禁止(discouraged and prohibited)。有些締約國雖然在憲法上保障平等權利,卻按照屬人法或習慣法 (personal or customary law)而允許一夫多妻的婚姻,這違反了婦女的憲法權利,也有違CEDAW第5條(a)項的規定。(見一般性建議21/14)大多數國家的報告中說它們的憲法和法律與CEDAW相符,但若在習俗、傳統上仍保持歧視性的作為,或是實際上(in reality)未能執行這些保障平等的法律,實際上是牴觸了CEDAW。(見一般性建議21/15)
CEDAW委員會在1994年作成一項專門關於家庭婚姻之女性地位平等的一般性建議,特別聲明CEDAW應保障男女在社會上和家庭中享有平等的人權。(見一般性建議21/1) 該建議更進一步地確認文化和傳統對於男女思想和行為具有重要性,並對婦女行使其基本權利有著限制性的作用,因此提請各國注意。(一般性建議21/3)聯合國的其他公約和宣言均對家庭和婦女在家庭中的平等和權利有所保障並確認,這些公約和宣言包括《世界人權宣言》,《公民與政治權利國際公約》,《已婚婦女國籍公約》(Convention on the Nationality of Married Women),
《關於結婚的同意、結婚年齡及婚姻登記的公約》(Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages)及其後的有關建議和《xxx提昇婦女前瞻策略》(Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women)。(見一般性建議21/2)
二、名詞解釋
(一)「有相同的締結婚約的權利」
一些國家規定了男女不同的最低結婚年齡。這種規定不正確地假定,婦女的心智發展速度(different rate of intellectual development)與男性不同,或者她們結婚時的生理的心智發展無關重要(immaterial),這些規定應予廢除(abolished)。在其他一些國家,少女婚配(betrothal of girls)或由其家人為其作主締婚是許可的。這種措施不僅與CEDAW 規定相牴觸, 而且損害了婦女自由選擇配偶的權利 (woman's right freely to choose her partner)。(見一般性建議21/38)
(二)「有相同的自由選擇配偶和非經本人自由表示、完全同意不締結婚約的權利」(選擇配偶權及結婚自由)
選擇配偶(to choose a spouse)和自由締結婚約(enter freely into marriage)的權
利對婦女一生以及對其作為人的尊嚴和平等而言是非常重要的。對締約國報告的審查顯示,有些國家基於習俗、宗教信仰或基於某一特殊族群的種族淵源(ethnic origins),允許迫婚或強迫再婚(forced marriages or remarriages)。其他一些國家允許以錢財或地位的提升為由安排婦女婚嫁,在另一些國家,婦女則因貧窮所迫而嫁給外國公民以求得經濟上的保障。除了因年幼或與對方有血緣關係 (consanguinity)等合理的限制條件之外,婦女選擇何時結婚、是否結婚、與誰結婚的權利,必頇得到法律的保護。(見一般性建議21/16)
(三)「在婚姻存續期間以及解除婚姻關係時,有相同的權利和義務」
許多國家依循普通法之原則(common law principles) 、宗教法或習慣法 (religious or customary law),在其法律制度中規定婚姻配偶雙方的權利和責任。這些與婚姻有關的法律和實踐上的差異對婦女具有廣泛的影響,普遍地限制了她們在婚姻中的平等地位和責任。這種限制往往導致丈夫被賦予一家之主(head of household)和主要決策者(primary decision maker)的地位,因此與CEDAW規定有所牴觸。(見一般性建議21/17)此外,在許多國家事實上的夫妻(伴侶)關係(de facto union)完全不受到法律的保護,在這種關係中的婦女,應在家庭生活以及其財產權上享有與男性平等的地位。她們在照顧和哺育子女或家庭成員方面應享有與男性平等的權利和責任。(見一般性建議21/18)
(四)「作為父母親有相同的權利和義務」
如CEDAW第5條(b)項中所規定的,在照顧、保護以及撫養子女方面,父母應共同分擔責任,《兒童權利公約》(Convention on the Rights of the Child)中列入了國際人權法上的「子女最佳利益」(the best interests of the child shall be the paramount consideration)原則,而不偏頗父母任何一方的權利與責任,這現在於各國已得到普遍的接受(universally accepted)。然而,在實際作法中,一些國家並不遵守給予孩子父母平等地位的原則,特別是在雙方未締結婚姻的情況下,這種結合所生的子女總是未享有與婚生(born in wedlock)子女相同的地位,而在父母離婚或分居的情況下,許多父親沒有負貣照顧、保護和撫養子女方面的責任。(見一般性建議21/19) CEDAW所闡述的這些共同分擔的權利和責任應當能夠通過監護(guardianship)、看管(wardship)、受託(trusteeship)和收養等法律概念依法並酌情得到實施(be enforced at law and as appropriate)。締約國應確保其法律規定,不論父母的婚姻狀況如何,也不論他們是否與子女同住,父母雙方平等分擔對子女的權利和責任。(見一般性建議21/20)
(五)「有相同的權利自由負責地決定子女人數和生育間隔,並有機會使婦女獲得行使這種權利的知識、教育和方法」
婦女必頇生育和哺育子女的責任,影響到其受教育、就業以及其他與個人發展有關的活動,也給婦女帶來了不平等的工作負擔。子女的人數和生育間隔 (number and spacing of their children)對婦女的生活也會產生同樣的影響,並影響到她們及子女的身心健康,因此婦女有權決定子女的人數和生育間隔。(見一般性建議21/21)關於是否生養孩子,雖然最好是與配偶或伴侶協商(in consultation with spouse or partner)作出決定,但絕不應受到配偶、父母親、伴侶(partner)或政府的限制。為了對安全可靠的避孕措施作出知情的決定(informed decision)貣見,婦女必頇獲得有關避孕措施及資訊,並能按照CEDAW第10 條(h)項受性教育和接受計劃生育服務的機會。(見一般性建議21/22) 如果能獲得自願調節生育 (voluntary regulation of fertility)之免費措施,家庭所有成員的健康、發展和幸福都可獲改善。此外,這種服務還有助於提高人民的總體生活質量和健康,自願調節人口增長(voluntary regulation of population growth)可幫助保育環境,取得永續的經濟和社會發展(sustainable economic and social development)。(見一般性建議 21/23)
(六)「夫妻有相同的個人權利,包括選擇姓氏、專業和職業的權利」
穩定的家庭(stable family)建立在每一家庭成員之平等、公正和個人的滿足基礎上。配偶雙方必頇能夠按照CEDAW第11 條(a)和(c)項有權選擇從事適合於自己能力、資歷和抱負(aspirations)的職業或工作,同樣地配偶雙方都應有權利選擇自己的姓氏(the right to choose his or her name) 以保持在社群中個人之特性 (individuality)及身分(identity),使其有別於其他社會成員。如果法律或習俗迫使婦女因結婚或離婚改變姓氏時,她便被剝奪了(denied)此種權利。(見一般性建議 21/24)
(七)「配偶雙方在財產的所有、取得、經營、管理、享有、處置方面,不論是無償的或是收取價值酬報的,都具有相同的權利」
第15條第1 款保障男女在法律之前平等,不論其婚姻狀況如何,婦女具有對財產的所有、管理、享有(enjoy)和處分(dispose)權,這對於婦女享有經濟獨立的權利(woman's right to enjoy financial independence)來說,是十分重要的。而在許多國家中,這對於婦女謀取生計的能力(earn a livelihood)、以及她及其家庭提供充足的住宅和營養(adequate housing and nutrition)而言,是十分關鍵的。(見一
般性建議21/26)
國家如實施土地改革方案(programme of agrarian reform)或重新分配土地,婦女不論其婚姻狀況如何, 應享有與男性平等地分享這種重新分配土地 (redistributed land)的權利。(見一般性建議21/27)
1.婚姻財產
一些國家不承認婦女在婚姻存續期間或事實上夫妻(伴侶)關係之存續期間以及在婚姻或關係結束後,享有同丈夫平等分配財產的權利。許多國家承認這一權利,但婦女行使這一權利的實際能力可能受到法律先例或習俗(legal precedent or custom)的限制。(見一般性建議21/30) 任何法律或習俗規定在婚姻或事實上夫妻 (伴侶)關係結束時、或在親屬死亡時,給予男性較多的財產權,這都是性別歧視。這些關係消滅之後的財產分配,會對婦女離婚後、在負擔她自己或其家庭、以及作為獨立個人尊嚴的實際生活能力,產生嚴重的影響。認為男性有撫養婦女和孩童的完全責任,並且認為會忠實地履行此一責任,是這一種有問題的假定,而根據這種假定而在財產分配上有差別待遇,顯然是不切實際的。(見一般性建議21/28)即便法律賦予婦女分配財產的權利,婦女在婚姻期間或離婚時擁有的財產可能仍由男性管理。在許多國家,包括存在共同財產制(community-property)的國家,往往沒有法律明文規定,要求在買賣或處分雙方在婚姻或事實上的關係期間所擁有的財產時,必頇徵求女方的意見,這限制了婦女處分財產的權利或在處分後之收益的權利。(見一般性建議21/31)
有些國家在分配婚姻財產時,較強調婚姻期間對婚姻財產的經濟貢獻 (financial contributions),而輕視諸如哺育子女、照顧老年親屬以及從事家務等其他非財產之貢獻。但通常正是妻子的這種非經濟貢獻(contributions of a non-financial nature),才使得丈夫得以掙取收入、增加資產。CEDAW委員會認為對經濟貢獻和非經濟貢獻應同等看重。(見一般性建議21/32) 有許多國家,在法律上對待事實上夫妻之同居共財期間所積累之財產分配額,常不同於婚姻關係所獲得的財產。在這種伴侶關係終止時,女方總是比男方獲得較少的財產分配數額,因此CEDAW委員會建議應廢除或制止(revoked and discouraged)以已婚或未婚歧視婦女於伴侶關係之財產分配數額的法律與習俗。(見一般性建議21/33)
2.繼承權
締約國的報告應按照CEDAW和經濟及社會理事會第884 D(XXXIV)號決議的規定,記載針對與影響婦女地位的繼承權法有關的法規或習俗規定所作的評論意
見,該決議曾建議各國確保與被繼承人具有同樣親屬關係(親等相同)(in the same degree of relationship to a deceased)的男性和女性應有權分享遺產,在繼承順序中具有同等地位。(見一般性建議21/34)
許多國家有關繼承權和財產的法律和實際做法導致了對婦女的嚴重歧視。這一不公平的待遇使得婦女在丈夫或父親死後所獲的財產,比鰥夫(widower)或兒子在這種情況下所獲的財產份額小。在一些情況下,婦女只獲得有限的和受控制的權利,只能從死者的財產中獲得收入。寡婦(widows)的繼承權往往不能反映在婚姻期間夫妻應獲得平等擁有財產權的原則(the principles of equal ownership of property)。這種規定與CEDAW相牴觸,應予廢止。(見一般性建議21/35)
(八)「結婚最低年齡」
CEDAW第16 條第2 項和《兒童權利公約》均規定防止締約國允許未成年者結婚或使這種婚姻生效。根據《兒童權利公約》「兒童係指18 歲以下的任何人,除非對其適用之法律規定成年(majority)年齡低於18 歲」。 儘管有此定義並且注意到《維也納宣言》(Vienna Declaration)的規定,CEDAW委員會仍認為男女結婚的最低年齡都應為18 歲。 男女結婚時承擔重要的責任,因此不應准許他們未達到成年和取得充分行為能力(full maturity and capacity to act)之前結婚。根據世界衛生組織的觀點,未成年人、特別是女童結婚生小孩,對其健康會有不利影響,同時妨礙其學業教育,她們的經濟自立也會受到限制(見一般性建議21/36)。這不僅影響婦女個人,還限制她們的能力發展和獨立性,減少她們就業機會,從而對其家庭和社區都有不利影響。(見一般性建議21/37)
締約國還應要求所有婚姻必頇登記(registration),不論是根據民法或是根據習俗或宗教法締結的。這樣,國家就能夠確保遵守CEDAW的規定,並規定配偶雙方平等、婚姻最低年齡(minimum age for marriage)、禁止重婚或一夫多妻 (prohibition of bigamy and polygamy)、並保護兒童的權利。(見一般性建議21/39)一些國家規定了男女不同的最低結婚年齡,這種規定不正確地假定,婦女的心智發展速度與男性不同,或者她們結婚時的生理的心智發展無關重要,這些規定應予廢除。在其他一些國家,少女婚配或由其家人為其作主締婚是許可的。這種措施不僅與CEDAW規定相牴觸,而且損害了婦女自由選擇配偶的權利。(見一般性建議21/38)
三、我國相關法規例示
我國民法親屬編對於婚姻與家庭有相關規定。由於親屬編在民國 19 年立法之初係立基於過去傳統父系社會男尊女卑的價值與文化觀念,因此過去的法規存有許多對婦女的歧視。在婦女團體的推動下,親屬編歷經了多次修改,以符合男女之平等。以夫妻在婚姻後的稱姓為例,我國民法 1000 條原本係以妻冠夫姓為
原則,保有本姓為例外,但在 1998 年後該條改為:「夫妻各保有其本姓。但得
書面約定以其本姓冠以配偶之姓,並向戶政機關登記。」且「冠姓之一方得隨時回復其本姓。但於同一婚姻關係存續中以一次為限。」
再以夫妻的住所規定為例,在民國 19 年,只規定「妻以夫之住所為住所,贅夫以妻之住所為住所。」夫妻無從約定以妻之住所為夫妻婚姻中共居之住所,這個規定在民國 74 年改了一次,修改為「妻以夫之住所為住所,贅夫以妻之住所為住所。但約定夫以妻之住所為住所,或妻以贅夫之住所為住所者,從其約定。」這個規定仍然未解決,如果夫妻兩人對於住所的設定有爭執而無法達成協議的時候,依法仍然必頇以夫的意思為準,這條規定經人民聲請大法官為憲法解釋,大法官做成第 452 號,主張「本條但書規定,雖賦予夫妻雙方約定住所之機會,惟如夫或贅夫之妻拒絕為約定或雙方協議不成時,即頇以其一方設定之住所為住所。上開法律未能兼顧他方選擇住所及具體個案之特殊情況,與憲法上平等及比例原則尚有未符。」而宣告本條違憲。現行法則修改為「夫妻之住所,由雙方共同協議之;未為協議或協議不成時,得聲請法院定之。」
另外,我國婚姻之生效,過去係以舉行公開儀式並有兩人以上證人作為婚姻之方式,向戶政機關之登記僅有推定的效果,稱為「儀式婚」,但因為公開儀式之舉證困難,易生爭議,因此在 2007 年改為「登記婚」,必頇有書面、有 2 人以上證人簽名、並由雙方當事人向戶政機關登記,才生效力。
我國民法第 972 條規定:「婚約,應由男女當事人自行訂定。」解決了過去
指腹為婚或婚姻由父母或他人作主的習俗。但婚約的最低年齡限制依照第 973條為「男未滿十七歲,女未滿十五歲者,不得訂定婚約。」而結婚年齡也在第 980 條規定為「男未滿十八歲,女未滿十六歲者,不得結婚。」
【與本條相關之一般性建議】一般性建議第21號
一般性建議21/1
《消除對婦女一切形式歧視公約》(大會第34/180 號決議,附件)確認男女在社會上和家庭中享有平等的人權。《公約》在各項有關人權的國際條約中占有重要地位。
※聯合國官方英文版
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (General Assembly resolution 34/180, annex) affirms the equality of human rights for women and men in society and in the family. The Convention has an important place among international treaties concerned with human rights.
一般性建議21/2
另一些公約和宣言也對家庭和婦女在家庭中的地位賦予重要地位。這些公約和宣言包括《世界人權宣言》(大會第217 A(III)號決議,附件),《公民權利和政治權利國際公約》(第2200 A(XXI)號決議,附件),《已婚婦女國籍公約》(第1040(XI)號決議,附件),《關於結婚的同意、結婚最低年齡及婚姻登記的公約》(第1763 A(XVII)號決議,附件)及其後的有關建議(第2018(XX)號決議)和《提高婦女地位奈洛比前瞻性戰略》。
※聯合國官方英文版
Other conventions and declarations also confer great significance on the family and woman's status within it. These include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (General Assembly resolution 217/A (III)), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (resolution 2200 A (XXI), annex), the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (resolution 1040 (XI), annex), the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (resolution 1763 A (XVII), annex) and the subsequent Recommendation thereon (resolution 2018 (XX)) and the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women.
一般性建議21/3
《消除對婦女一切形式歧視公約》複述了已經寫入上述公約和宣言內的婦女的固有權利,但更進一步地確認文化和傳統對於男女思想和行為具有重要性並且對婦女行使基本權利具有限制作用。
※聯合國官方英文版
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women recalls the inalienable rights of women which are already embodied in the above-mentioned conventions and declarations, but it goes further by recognizing the importance of culture and tradition in shaping the thinking and behaviour of men and women and the significant part they play in restricting the exercise of basic rights by women.
一般性建議21/11
有史以來,人類的公私生活受到不同的看待和管理。在所有社會,傳統上在私人或家庭領域內擔當任務的婦女其活動長期以來被貶低。
※聯合國官方英文版
Historically, human activity in public and private life has been viewed differently and regulated accordingly. In all societies women who have traditionally performed their roles in the private or domestic sphere have long had those activities treated as inferior.
一般性建議21/12
由於這類活動對社會的存續而言是寶貴的,因而沒有理由對這些活動適用不同的歧視性的法律或習俗。締約國報告表明,仍有國家在其國內不存在法律上的平等。婦女沒有取得資源的平等機會,不能享有家庭中和社會上的平等地位。即使存在有法律上的平等,所有的社會都為婦女指定了被視為是低下的不一樣的角色任務。這樣就違反了特別是《公約》第十六條以及第二、第五和第二十四條內所載公正和平等的原則。
※聯合國官方英文版
As such activities are invaluable for the survival of society, there can be no justification for applying different and discriminatory laws or customs to them. Reports of States parties disclose that there are still countries where de jure equality does not exist. Women are thereby prevented from having equal access to resources and from enjoying equality of status in the family and society. Even where de jure equality exists, all societies assign different roles, which are regarded as inferior, to women. In this way, principles of justice and equality contained in particular in article 16 and also in articles 2, 5 and 24 of the Convention are being violated.
一般性建議21/13
家庭的形式和概念因國家而異,甚至一國之內不同地區也不相同。不論其形式如何,也不論一國之內的法律制度、宗教、習俗或傳統如何,在法律上和在私人生活之中,必頇按照如《公約》第二條所規定的對所有人平等和公正的原則對待婦女。
※聯合國官方英文版
The form and concept of the family can vary from State to State, and even between regions within a State. Whatever form it takes, and whatever the legal system, religion, custom or tradition within the country, the treatment of women in the family both at law and in private must accord with the principles of equality and justice for all people, as article 2 of the Convention requires.
一般性建議21/14
締約國報告還表明在一些國家有一夫多妻的習俗。一夫多妻婚姻與男女xx的權利相牴觸,會給婦女和其受撫養人帶來嚴重的情感和經濟方面的後果,這種婚姻應予抑制和禁止。委員會關切地注意到,有些締約國其憲法保障平等權利,卻按照屬人法或習慣法而允許一夫多妻的婚姻,這違反了婦女的憲法權利,也有違《公約》第五條(a)項的規定。
※聯合國官方英文版
States parties' reports also disclose that polygamy is practised in a number of countries. Polygamous marriage contravenes a woman's right to equality with men, and can have such serious emotional and financial consequences for her and her dependents that such marriages ought to be discouraged and prohibited. The Committee notes with concern that some States parties, whose constitutions guarantee equal rights, permit polygamous marriage in accordance with personal or customary law. This violates the constitutional rights of women, and breaches the provisions of article 5 (a) of the Convention.
一般性建議21/15
大多數國家報告說,它們的憲法和法律與《公約》相符,但習俗和傳統以及實際
上未能執行這些法律是與《公約》相牴觸的。
※聯合國官方英文版
While most countries report that national constitutions and laws comply with the Convention, custom, tradition and failure to enforce these laws in reality contravene the Convention.
一般性建議21/16
選擇配偶和自由締婚的權利對婦女一生以及對其作為個人的尊嚴和平等而言是非常重要的。對締約國報告的審查表明,有些國家基於習俗、宗教信仰或某一特殊族群的民族淵源,允許迫婚或強迫再婚。其他一些國家允許婦女屈服於為錢財或出於某一方選擇而安排的婚姻,在另一些國家,婦女為貧窮所迫而嫁給外國公民以求得經濟上的保障。除了由於例如年幼或因與對方有血緣關係等合理的限制條件之外,婦女選擇何時結婚、是否結婚、與誰結婚的權利,必頇得到法律保護和執行。
※聯合國官方英文版
A woman's right to choose a spouse and enter freely into marriage is central to her life and to her dignity and equality as a human being. An examination of States parties' reports discloses that there are countries which, on the basis of custom, religious beliefs or the ethnic origins of particular groups of people, permit forced marriages or remarriages. Other countries allow a woman's marriage to be arranged for payment or preferment and in others women's poverty forces them to marry foreign nationals for financial security. Subject to reasonable restrictions based for example on woman's youth or consanguinity with her partner, a woman's right to choose when, if, and whom she will marry must be protected and enforced at law.
一般性建議21/17
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
對締約國的審查報告表明,許多國家通過依賴適用普通法原則、宗教法或習慣法而非遵循《公約》所載原則,在其法律制度中規定婚姻配偶雙方的權利和責任。這些與婚姻有關的法律和實際做法方面的差異對婦女具有廣泛的影響,普遍地限制了她們在婚姻中的平等地位和責任。這種限制往往導致丈夫被給予一家之主和主要決策者的地位,因此與《公約》規定有所牴觸。
※聯合國官方英文版
An examination of States parties' reports discloses that many countries in their legal systems provide for the rights and responsibilities of married partners by relying on the application of common law principles, religious or customary law, rather than by complying with the principles contained in the Convention. These variations in law and practice relating to marriage have wide-ranging consequences for women, invariably restricting their rights to equal status and responsibility within marriage. Such limitations often result in the husband being accorded the status of head of household and primary decision maker and therefore contravene the provisions of the Convention.
一般性建議21/18
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
此外,一般來說,事實上的結合關係完全不獲法律保護。在這種關係中的婦女,應在家庭生活和共用受到法律保護的收入和資產方面享有與男子平等的地位。她們在照料和哺育受撫養子女或家庭成員方面應享有與男子平等的權利和責任。
※聯合國官方英文版
Moreover, generally a de facto union is not given legal protection at all. Women living in such relationships should have their equality of status with men both in family life and in the sharing of income and assets protected by law. Such women should share equal rights and responsibilities with men for the care and raising of dependent children or family members.
一般性建議21/19
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
如第五條(b)項中所規定的,大多數國家承認在照料、保護以及撫養子女方面,父母應共同分擔責任,《兒童權利公約》(大會第44/25 號決議,附件)中列入了「應以子女的利益為重」這一原則,現在似乎已得到普遍的接受。然而,在實際做法中,一些國家並不遵守給予孩子父母平等地位的原則,特別是在雙方未締結婚姻的情況下,這種結合所生的子女並不總是享有與婚生子女相同的地位,而在父母離婚或分居的情況下,許多父親在子女的照料、保護和撫養方面沒有負貣責任。
※聯合國官方英文版
As provided in article 5 (b), most States recognize the shared responsibility of parents for the care, protection and maintenance of children. The principle that "the best interests of the child shall be the paramount consideration", has been included in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (General Assembly resolution 44/25, annex) and seems now to be universally accepted. However, in practice, some countries do not observe the principle of granting the parents of children equal status, particularly when they are not married. The children of such unions do not always enjoy the same status as those born in wedlock and, where the mothers are divorced or living apart, many fathers fail to share the responsibility of care, protection and maintenance of their children.
一般性建議21/20
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
《公約》所闡述的這些共同分擔的權利和責任應當能夠通過監護、看管、受託和收養等法律概念依法並酌情得到實施。締約國應確保其法律規定,不論父母的婚姻狀況如何,也不論他們是否與子女共同生活,父母雙方平等分擔對子女的權利和責任。
※聯合國官方英文版
The shared rights and responsibilities enunciated in the Convention should be enforced at law and as appropriate through legal concepts of guardianship, wardship, trusteeship and adoption. States parties should ensure that by their laws both parents, regardless of their marital status and whether they live with their children or not, share equal rights and responsibilities for their children.
一般性建議21/21
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
婦女必頇生育和哺養子女的責任,影響到其接受教育、就業以及其他與個人發展有關的活動。還給婦女帶來了不平等的工作負擔。子女的人數和生育間隔對婦女的生活也會產生同樣的影響,並影響到她們及其子女的身心健康。因此婦女有權決定子女的人數和生育間隔。
※聯合國官方英文版
The responsibilities that women have to bear and raise children affect their right of access to education, employment and other activities related to their personal development. They also impose inequitable burdens of work on women. The number and spacing of their children have a similar impact on women's lives and also affect their physical and mental health, as well as that of their children. For these reasons, women are entitled to decide on the number and spacing of their children.
一般性建議 21/22
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
有些報告表明,採取了一些對婦女有嚴重影響的強制性手段諸如強迫懷孕,人工流產或絕育。關於是否生養孩子,最好是與配偶或伴侶協商作出決定,但絕不應受到配偶、父母親、伴侶或政府的限制。為了對安全可靠的避孕措施作出知情的
決定貣見,婦女必頇獲得有關避孕措施及其使用的資訊,並能按照《公約》第
10 條(h)項獲得接受性教育和計劃生育服務的保證機會。
※聯合國官方英文版
Some reports disclose coercive practices which have serious consequences for women, such as forced pregnancies, abortions or sterilization. Decisions to have children or not, while preferably made in consultation with spouse or partner, must not nevertheless be limited by spouse, parent, partner or Government. In order to make an informed decision about safe and reliable contraceptive measures, women must have information about contraceptive measures and their use, and guaranteed access to sex education and family planning services, as provided in article 10 (h) of the Convention.
一般性建議21/23
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
人們普遍認為,如有自願調節生育的免費可獲得的適當措施,家庭所有成員的健康、發展和幸福都可獲改善。此外,這種服務還有助於提高人民的總體生活品質和健康,自願調節人口增長可幫助養護環境,取得持續的經濟和社會發展。
※聯合國官方英文版
There is general agreement that where there are freely available appropriate measures for the voluntary regulation of fertility, the health, development and well-being of all members of the family improves. Moreover, such services improve the general quality of
life and health of the population, and the voluntary regulation of population growth helps preserve the environment and achieve sustainable economic and social development.
一般性建議21/24
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
穩定的家庭是建立在每一家庭成員平等、公正和個人滿足基礎上的。配偶雙方必頇能夠按照《公約》第十一條(a)和(c)項有權選擇從事適合於自己的能力、資歷和抱負的職業或工作,同樣配偶雙方都應有權利選擇自己的姓氏以保持個人特性,在社區中的身份,並使其區別於其他社會成員。如果法律或習俗迫使婦女由於結婚或離婚而改變姓氏時,則其就被剝奪了此種權利。
※聯合國官方英文版
A stable family is one which is based on principles of equity, justice and individual fulfillment for each member. Each partner must therefore have the right to choose a profession or employment that is best suited to his or her abilities, qualifications and aspirations, as provided in article 11 (a) and (c) of the Convention. Moreover, each partner should have the right to choose his or her name, thereby preserving individuality and identity in the community and distinguishing that person from other members of society. When by law or custom a woman is obliged to change her name on marriage or at its dissolution, she is denied these rights.
一般性建議21/26
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
第十五條第1款保障男女在法律面前平等。不論其婚姻狀況如何,有對財產的所有、經營、享有和處置權,對婦女享有經濟獨立的權利來說,是十分重要的,在許多國家,對婦女謀取生計的能力以及對為她及其家庭提供充分的住房和營養而言,是十分關鍵的。
※聯合國官方英文版
Article 15 (l) guarantees women equality with men before the law. The right to own, manage, enjoy and dispose of property is central to a woman's right to enjoy financial independence, and in many countries will be critical to her ability to earn a livelihood and to provide adequate housing and nutrition for herself and for her family.
一般性建議21/27
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
國家如實施土地改革方案或向不同族裔群體重新分配土地,婦女不論其婚姻狀況如何,與男子平等地分享這種重新分配的土地的權利,應當得到審慎的尊重。
※聯合國官方英文版
In countries that are undergoing a programme of agrarian reform or redistribution of land among groups of different ethnic origins, the right of women, regardless of marital status, to share such redistributed land on equal terms with men should be carefully observed.
一般性建議21/28
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
在大多數國家,相當人數的婦女為單身或離婚的,並且許多可能有獨力養家的責任。認為男子有撫養其家庭裡婦女和孩童的完全責任而他可以並且會信實地履行此一責任,根據這種假定而在財產分配方面帶有任何歧視,顯然是不切實際的。因此任何法律或習俗規定在婚姻結束或事實上的關係結束時,或在親屬死亡時,給予男子較大的分享財產的權利,都是歧視性的,將對婦女提出與丈夫離婚、負擔她自己或其家庭以及作為獨立個人尊嚴地生活的實際能力產生嚴重的影響。
※聯合國官方英文版
In most countries, a significant proportion of the women are single or divorced and many have the sole responsibility to support a family. Any discrimination in the division of property that rests on the premise that the man alone is responsible for the support of the women and children of his family and that he can and will honourably discharge this responsibility is clearly unrealistic. Consequently, any law or custom that grants men a right to a greater share of property at the end of a marriage or de facto relationship, or on the death of a relative, is discriminatory and will have a serious impact on a woman's practical ability to divorce her husband, to support herself or her family and to live in dignity as an independent person.
一般性建議21/30
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
一些國家不承認婦女在婚姻或事實上的關係期間以及在婚姻或關係結束時,享有同丈夫平等分享財產的權利。許多國家承認這一權利,但婦女行使這一權利的實際能力可能受到法律先例或習俗的限制。
※聯合國官方英文版
There are countries that do not acknowledge that right of women to own an equal share of the property with the husband during a marriage or de facto relationship and when that marriage or relationship ends. Many countries recognize that right, but the practical ability of women to exercise it may be limited by legal precedent or custom.
一般性建議21/31
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
即便賦予婦女這些法定權利,法院也實施這些權利,婦女在婚姻期間或離婚時擁有的財產仍可能由男子管理。在許多國家,包括存在共同財產制的國家,並沒有法律明文規定,要求在出售或處置雙方在婚姻或事實上的關係期間所擁有的財產時必頇徵求女方的意見,這限制了婦女控制財產處置或處置後的收入的能力。
※聯合國官方英文版
Even when these legal rights are vested in women, and the courts enforce them, property owned by a woman during marriage or on divorce may be managed by a man. In many States, including those where there is a community-property regime, there is no legal requirement that a woman be consulted when property owned by the parties during marriage or de facto relationship is sold or otherwise disposed of. This limits the woman's ability to control disposition of the property or the income derived from it.
一般性建議21/32
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
在一些國家,在分配婚姻財產時,更多地強調婚姻期間對所獲財產的經濟貢獻,而輕視其他貢獻,諸如哺育子女、照顧老年親屬以及從事家務職責等。通常,正是由於妻子的這種非經濟貢獻,才使得丈夫得以掙取收入,增加資產。對經濟貢獻和非經濟貢獻應同等看重。
※聯合國官方英文版
In some countries, on division of marital property, greater emphasis is placed on financial contributions to property acquired during a marriage, and other contributions, such as raising children, caring for elderly relatives and discharging household duties are diminished. Often, such contributions of a non-financial nature by the wife enable the husband to earn an income and increase the assets. Financial and non-financial contributions should be accorded the same weight.
一般性建議21/33
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
在許多國家,法律對待事實上的關係期間所積累的財產不同於婚姻期間所獲得的財產。在關係終止時,女方總是比男方獲得的份額小得多。在這方面應廢除或制止歧視有無子女的已婚或未婚婦女的財產法和習俗。
※聯合國官方英文版
In many countries, property accumulated during a de facto relationship is not treated at law on the same basis as property acquired during marriage. Invariably, if the relationship ends, the woman receives a significantly lower share than her partner. Property laws and customs that discriminate in this way against married or unmarried women with or without children should be revoked and discouraged.
一般性建議21/34
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
締約國的報告應按照《公約》和經濟及社會理事會第884 D(XXXIV)號決議的規定,載有對與影響婦女地位的繼承權法有關的法規或習俗規定所作的評論意見,經社理事會該決定曾建議各國確保同死者具有同樣近親關係的男子和婦女應有權同等分享財產,在繼承順序中具有同等地位,這一規定並未得到普遍執行。
※聯合國官方英文版
Reports of States parties should include comment on the legal or customary provisions relating to inheritance laws as they affect the status of women as provided in the Convention and in Economic and Social Council resolution 884 D (XXXIV), in which the Council recommended that States ensure that men and women in the same degree of relationship to a deceased are entitled to equal shares in the estate and to equal rank in the order of succession. That provision has not been generally implemented.
一般性建議21/36
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
1993年6月14日至25日在維也納舉行的世界人權會議通過的《維也納宣言和行動綱領》敦促締約國廢止歧視女童和引貣對女童的傷害的現行法律和條例並廢除這類習俗和慣例。第十六條第2款和《兒童權利公約》均規定防止締約國允許未成
年者結婚或使這種婚姻生效。根據《兒童權利公約》,「兒童係指18歲以下的任何人,除非對其適用之法律規定成年年齡低於18歲」。儘管有此定義並且注意到
《維也納宣言》的規定,委員會仍認為男女結婚的最低年齡都應為18歲。男女結婚時承擔重要的責任。因此不應准許他們在達到成年和取得充分行為能力之前結婚。根據世界衛生組織的觀點,未成年人、特別是少女結婚生小孩,對其健康會有不利影響,同時妨礙其學業教育。結果,她們的經濟自立也受到限制。
※聯合國官方英文版
In the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action 12 adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights, held at Vienna from 14 to 25 June 1993, States are urged to repeal existing laws and regulations and to remove customs and practices which discriminate against and cause harm to the girl child. Article 16 (2) and the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child preclude States parties from permitting or giving validity to a marriage between persons who have not attained their majority. In the context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, "a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier". Notwithstanding this definition, and bearing in mind the provisions of the Vienna Declaration, the Committee considers that the minimum age for marriage should be 18 years for both man and woman. When men and women marry, they assume important responsibilities. Consequently, marriage should not be permitted before they have attained full maturity and capacity to act. According to the World Health Organization, when minors, particularly girls, marry and have children, their health can be adversely affected and their education is impeded. As a result their economic autonomy is restricted.
一般性建議21/38
聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
一些國家規定了男女不同的最低結婚年齡。這種規定不正確地假定,婦女的心智發展速度與男子不同,或者她們結婚時的生理的心智發展無關重要,這些規定應予廢除。在其他一些國家,少女婚配或由其家人為其作主締婚是許可的。這種措施不僅與《公約》規定相牴觸,而且損害了婦女自由選擇配偶的權利。
※聯合國官方英文版
Some countries provide for different ages for marriage for men and women. As such provisions assume incorrectly that women have a different rate of intellectual development from men, or that their stage of physical and intellectual development at marriage is immaterial, these provisions should be abolished. In other countries, the betrothal of girls or undertakings by family members on their behalf is permitted. Such measures contravene not only the Convention, but also a woman's right freely to choose her partner.
一般性建議21/39
※聯合國官方中文版(簡轉繁)
締約國還應要求所有婚姻必頇登記,不論其是根據民法或是根據習俗或宗教法締結的。這樣,國家就能夠確保遵守《公約》的規定,並規定配偶雙方平等、婚姻最低年齡、禁止重婚或一夫多妻並保護兒童的權利。
※聯合國官方英文版
States parties should also require the registration of all marriages whether contracted civilly or according to custom or religious law. The State can thereby ensure compliance with the Convention and establish equality between partners, a minimum age for marriage, prohibition of bigamy and polygamy and the protection of the rights of children.