Assessment of the Decision. Making Approach After discussing the dynamics of small groups, let us discuss Xxxxxxx’x work again. Given the importance and centrality of Xxxxxxx’x work in the field of international relations6, criticisms were bound to surface. However, such criticisms seem to lack a coherent theme. And consequently, those criticisms instead attack Xxxxxxx’x project from various angles across a wide spectrum of issues. Despite the variety of perspectives from which those criticisms originate, such counter- arguments can be categorized into several themes.
Assessment of the Decision. Making Approach After discussing the dynamics of small groups, let us discuss Xxxxxxx’x work again. Given the importance and centrality of Xxxxxxx’x work in the field of international relations6, criticisms were bound to surface. However, such criticisms seem to lack a coherent theme. And consequently, those criticisms instead attack Xxxxxxx’x project from various angles across a wide spectrum of issues. Despite the variety of perspectives from which those criticisms originate, such counter- arguments can be categorized into several themes. 6 From discussions with a senior US academic, it seemed that when it first came out Xxxxxx X Xxxxxxx’x Essence of Decision became so influential in academic circles such that Harvard University used the work as the basis by which to xxxxx Xxxxxxx full academic tenure as Professor of Government. The first category of criticisms of Xxxxxxx’x work falls under methodological soundness. One argument pointed out the implausibility of the theory’s claims that bureaucratic competition, and not the power of the presidency, is responsible for policy outcomes; hence absolving public office holders of the responsibility and accountability for policy (Krasner 1972). The second argument underlined the apparent neglect to the overall political system by the failure by both legislators and the electorate to constrain executive powers up to a point whereby bureaucratic competition can take place (Ball 1974, 79). The third argument acknowledged the theory’s power in explaining staff behavior but did not explain the direction and purpose of the political system, an important component that cannot be ignored in policy analysis (Perlmutter 1974). Another argument dealt with the implementation of the theory. Bureaucratic politics models require evidence that is rarely available. Analysts choosing to proceed by employing such models therefore risk imposing the theory on the data as opposed to testing the theory on the data (Xxxxxxxx 1977, 99-100). Another argument, which is the more important within the context of the present study, proposed that analysts would be deprived of the knowledge of whether pressure groups, economic interests, public opinion, and the media influence the decision-making process, or of the ability to even be able to recognize whether such influences exist (Xxxxxx 1986, 55). The second category of criticisms of Xxxxxxx’x work argues the inapplicability of context, especially when applying it to developing countries. On...
