BREEDING SITES. THREATS By 1997, the military had closed its bases on Kure, Midway, and French Frigate Shoals and management of the islands had been transferred to state and federal wildlife agencies. Many of the threats to the NWHI colonies have been addressed through management actions[45]. All introduced mammals, except house mice (Mus musculus) on Midway, were eradicated from the NWHI. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) were eradicated from Kure in 1993, as were black rats (R. rattus) from Midway in 1997. Non-native plants such as golden crown-xxxxx (Verbesina encelioides) and ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia) have degraded nesting habitat for albatrosses at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes Reef. Verbesina forms dense stands that limit available nesting habitat. The USFWS is actively working to control or eradicate this invasive species but this is a long-term and costly endeavor [12, 45]. Mosquitoes were introduced, and are now established, at Midway Atoll and the main Hawaiian Islands, where they serve as vectors for avian pox [45, 56]. P. immutabilis chicks are afflicted with the disease however, it does not appear to affect reproductive success in this species [56]. Lead poisoning (from lead paint on old buildings) may affect up to 5% of P. immutabilis chicks on Midway Atoll [12, 57] and the USFWS continues efforts to reduce these impacts. Finally, potential sea level rise is a threat to the low-lying islands and atolls of the NWHI and central Pacific [12]. Outside of the NWHI, an eradication program for feral cats (Felis catus) at Wake Atoll appears to have been successful, but black rats and Asian rats (X. xxxxxxxx) remain a threat at this site [37]. Polynesian rats are present on Lehua and black rats on Kaula. Goats (Xxxxx hircus) significantly altered and degraded habitat on Isla Xxxxxxxxx before a successful eradication program was initiated in 2004 [58]. Feral cats were likely responsible for the extinction of the Xxxxxxxxx xxxxx-petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla) [59] and they remain a major threat to nesting albatrosses and limit expansion of the colony. Eradication programs have been considered or are planned for mammalian predators at all of the sites discussed above. Predator eradication is not a viable option in the Main Hawaiian Islands, where a suite of predators, including feral cats and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and rats threaten nesting albatrosses [12, 46]. Fences and predator control programs are the primary means for controlling introduced predators at these sites. Non-native predators may be a factor inhibiting recolonization at some historical sites. Military training exercises at Kaula Rock may be affecting this small colony [12].
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BREEDING SITES. THREATS By 1997, the military had closed its bases on Kure, Midway, and French Frigate Shoals and management of the islands had been transferred to state and federal wildlife agencies. Many of the threats to the NWHI colonies have been addressed through management actions[45]. All introduced mammals, except house mice (Mus musculus) on Midway, were have been eradicated from the NWHI. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) were eradicated from Kure in 1993, as were black rats (R. rattus) from Midway in 1997. Non-native plants such as golden crown-xxxxx (Verbesina encelioides) and ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia) have degraded nesting habitat for albatrosses at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes Reef. Verbesina forms dense stands that limit available nesting habitat. The USFWS is actively working to control or eradicate this invasive species but this is a long-term and costly endeavor [1214, 45]. Mosquitoes were introduced, and are now established, at Midway Atoll and the main Hawaiian Islands, where they serve as vectors for avian pox [45, 56]. P. immutabilis chicks are afflicted with the disease however, it does not appear to affect reproductive success in this species [56]. Lead poisoning (from lead paint on old buildings) may affect up to 5% of P. immutabilis chicks on Midway Atoll [12, 57] and the USFWS continues efforts to reduce these impacts. Finally, potential Potential sea level rise is a threat to the low-lying islands and atolls of the NWHI and central Pacific [1214]. Outside of the NWHI, an eradication program for feral cats (Felis catus) at Wake Atoll appears to have been successful, but black rats and Asian rats (X. xxxxxxxx) remain a threat at this site [3732]. Polynesian rats are present on Lehua and black rats on KaulaKaula [14]. Goats (Xxxxx hircus) significantly altered and degraded habitat on Isla Xxxxxxxxx before a successful eradication program was initiated in 2004 [58]. Feral and feral cats were likely responsible for the extinction of the Xxxxxxxxx xxxxx-petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla) [59] and they remain a major threat to nesting and colonizing albatrosses and limit expansion of the colony[34]. Eradication programs have been considered or are planned for mammalian predators at all of the sites discussed above. Predator eradication is not a viable option in the Main Hawaiian Islands, where a suite of predators, including feral cats and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and rats threaten nesting albatrosses [12, 46]. Fences and predator control programs are the primary means for controlling introduced predators at these sites. Non-native predators may be a factor inhibiting recolonization at some historical sites. Military training exercises at Kaula Rock may be affecting this small colony [1214].. Table 5. Summary of known threats at the breeding sites of P. immutabilis. Table based on unpublished data and input from X. Xxxxxxxxx, X. Xxxxx, and X. Xxxx, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Hawaii, except Oahu); X. Xxxxx, University of Hawaii (Oahu); X. Xxxxxx, Pacific Air Force and X. Xxxxxx, Marine Endeavors (Wake); X. Xxxxxxxx, Yamashina Institute for Ornithology (Japanese Islands); and, X. Xxxxxx and X. X. Xxxxx, University of California, Santa Xxxx (Mexico). (see Glossary for codes). species) species Central Pacific Kure Atoll No No No Low Low Yes No No Low Midway Atoll Low No No Low Yes Yes No No Low Pearl and Hermes Reef No No No Low No Yes No No No Lisianski Island No No No Low No Yes No No No Laysan Island No No No Low No Yes No No No French Frigate Shoals No No No Low Yes Yes No No No Necker Island No No No No No Yes No No No Nihoa Island No No No No No Yes No No No Kaula Med No No No Yes Yes Yes No No Lehua No No No No No Yes Yes No No Xxxxxxxx Atoll No No No Low Yes Yes No No Low Wake Atoll Low No Low Low Low Low Low No Unk Western Pacific Xxxxxxxxx (Izu Shoto) No No High No No No Mukojima Retto No No No No No No Hahajima Retto No No No No No No Senkaku Retto Eastern Pacific Unk No No No No Unk Unk Unk Unk Isla Xxxxxxxxx Low No No No No No Yes No No San Xxxxxxxxx No No Low No No No No Unk Unk Breeding site location Human disturbance Human take Natural Disaster Sea level rise Habitat alteration (human) Habitat alteration (alien Predation (alien species) Increased impact by native Contamination MARINE DISTRIBUTION
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BREEDING SITES. THREATS By 1997, the military had closed its bases on Kure, Midway, and French Frigate Shoals and management of the islands had been transferred to state and federal wildlife agencies. Many of the threats to the NWHI colonies have been addressed through management actions[45]. All introduced mammals, except house mice (Mus musculus) on Midway, were have been eradicated from the NWHI. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) were eradicated from Kure in 1993, as were black rats (R. rattus) from Midway in 1997. Non-native plants such as golden crown-xxxxx (Verbesina encelioides) and ironwood (Casuarina equisetifolia) have degraded nesting habitat for albatrosses at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes Reef. Verbesina forms dense stands that limit available nesting habitat. The USFWS is actively working to control or eradicate this invasive species but this is a long-term and costly endeavor [1214, 45]. Mosquitoes were introduced, and are now established, at Midway Atoll and the main Hawaiian Islands, where they serve as vectors for avian pox [45, 56]. P. immutabilis chicks are afflicted with the disease however, it does not appear to affect reproductive success in this species [56]. Lead poisoning (from lead paint on old buildings) may affect up to 5% of P. immutabilis chicks on Midway Atoll [12, 57] and the USFWS continues efforts to reduce these impacts. Finally, potential Potential sea level rise is a threat to the low-lying islands and atolls of the NWHI and central Pacific [1214]. Outside of the NWHI, an eradication program for feral cats (Felis catus) at Wake Atoll appears to have been successful, but black rats and Asian rats (X. R. xxxxxxxx) remain a threat at this site [3732]. Polynesian rats are present on Lehua and black rats on KaulaKaula [14]. Goats (Xxxxx hircus) significantly altered and degraded habitat on Isla Xxxxxxxxx before a successful eradication program was initiated in 2004 [58]. Feral and feral cats were likely responsible for the extinction of the Xxxxxxxxx xxxxx-petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla) [59] and they remain a major threat to nesting and colonizing albatrosses and limit expansion of the colony[34]. Eradication programs have been considered or are planned for mammalian predators at all of the sites discussed above. Predator eradication is not a viable option in the Main Hawaiian Islands, where a suite of predators, including feral cats and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and rats threaten nesting albatrosses [12, 46]. Fences and predator control programs are the primary means for controlling introduced predators at these sites. Non-native predators may be a factor inhibiting recolonization at some historical sites. Military training exercises at Kaula Rock may be affecting this small colony [1214].. Table 5. Summary of known threats at the breeding sites of P. immutabilis. Table based on unpublished data and input from X. Xxxxxxxxx, X. Xxxxx, and X. Xxxx, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Hawaii, except Oahu); X. Xxxxx, University of Hawaii (Oahu); A. Hebshi, Pacific Air Force and X. Xxxxxx, Marine Endeavors (Wake); X. Xxxxxxxx, Xxxxxxxxx Institute for Ornithology (Japanese Islands); and, X. Xxxxxx and X. X. Xxxxx, University of California, Santa Xxxx (Mexico). (see Glossary for codes). species) species
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