Common use of Philo of Alexandria Clause in Contracts

Philo of Alexandria. Xxxxx of Alexandria was a wealthy Jewish intellectual, a member of a prosperous family, living in Alexandria in Egypt in the first half of the first century CE.31 28 Xxxxxxx Xxxxxxxx discusses the identification of the divine with perfect being and seeing perfection as the highest virtue in general, as the reason why forgiveness (both divine and inter-human) was little appreciated in ancient philosophy (see Griswold, Forgiveness, pp. 2–14, and similarly in Griswold, ‘Plato’). Xxxxxxx provides an additional form of critique of forgiveness in ancient philosophy: Xxxxx claimed that it sustains injustice instead of correcting it (see Xxxxxxx, Verzeihens, pp. 139–142). 29 Xxxxx criticises sacrifices as a means for placating the gods in Rep. II, 364a–366b. He presents a critique of the traditional anthropomorphic poetic presentation of the gods in Rep. II, 377b–383c. Here, he argues that if the gods were truly as emotionally fickle and scheming as the poets presented them, they could not be an example for virtuous human behaviour (see also Xxxxx, ‘Zorn’, pp. 147–148). Xxxxxxxxx argues for the immutability of the divine in Met. XII, 1072b, and in Eth. Eud., VIII, 1249b 12 he argues that God needs nothing. For the development of Greek natural theology and how it contrasted with traditional presentations of the divine see Xxxxxx, Theology, pp. 23, 47, 180–181. See further Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, pp. 41–49 for an overview of Epicurus’ theology and his critique of traditional presentations of the divine. 30 Incidentally, such an identification of God with perfection still appears as an important philosophical objection against ascribing forgiveness to God, as illustrated by examples of Minas, ‘Forgiveness’ and Xxxxxx, ‘Trespasses’. 31 For introductions to Philo see: Xxxxxxx, Les idées; Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxxxxxx; Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxxxx, Xxxxxx; Xxxxxxxxxx, Introduction; Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxx, ‘Philo’; Xxxxxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxxx, Jews; Xxxxx-Xxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxx, ‘Philo’; Xxxxxxxx/Xxxxxxx/xxx xxx Xxxx, ‘Philo’; Xxxxxxx, Biography. The only anchor we have for dating Xxxxx’x life is his participation in an embassy to Emperor Xxxxx, which Xxxxx described in his treatise Legatio ad Gaium. This embassy must have taken place sometime around 38 and 39 CE, shortly after the Jewish community in Alexandria had been in heavy conflict with their Greek neighbours.32 The city of Alexandria in Egypt was a highly developed metropolis, a melting pot for Greek, Egyptian and Near Eastern cultures.33 Its population was a mix of many peoples, with a long-established and substantial Jewish population.34 Philo and his family were part of the rich and influential stratum of this Jewish population.35 Philo was well educated.36 He also participated in the good life of banquets, attended theatres and sporting events, and was active in politics.37 Xxxxx appears to have been a socially and politically active man. In Xxxxx’x own words, however, his dearest occupation was reflecting upon questions that go beyond the mundane matters of politics, beyond the immediate demands that life puts upon a human and even beyond the visible world as such. He recounted with longing the times he enjoyed when he would soar up to the heavens and contemplate ideas, until the turmoil of ‘civil cares’ would pull him 32 Xxxx Xxxxxxx dates this embassy somewhere in 38–39 CE (Barclay, Jews, p. 178); Xxxxx Xxxxx gives 39 CE (Xxxxx, ‘Philo’, p. 851). For an extensive discussion on the dating of this embassy see Xxxxxx/ Xxxx, Xxxxx vol. 10, pp. xxvii–xxxi. 33 Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx, p. 6; Xxxxxxxx, Xxxxxx, p. 12. 34 Xxxxx states that the Jewish population of Alexandria was large (Mos. II, 232; Legat. 32–45; Flacc. 55), and in Flacc. 43 he gives a figure of one million Jews living in Alexandria. Xxxxxxxx (BJ II, 497; BJ VII, 369) gives a number of 50,000–60,000 Jews being killed in Alexandria in 66 CE. Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxx underlines that we have no means to determine the number of Jews in Alexandria precisely and that the figures given by ancient authors should not be considered trustworthy. However, the repeated emphasis that the number of Jews was large, makes it a likely assumption that the number of Jews was substantial and that they could make their influence felt in public life (Tcherikover, Civilization, pp. 286–287). Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx estimates that the Jewish population in Alexandria in Philo’s day amounted to 180,000 people, roughly one-third of the entire population of Alexandria (see Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxxxx, Jews, p. 73). 35 Xxxxxxxxxx, Introduction, p. 7. Xxxxx’x brother Xxxxx Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxx is attested to have been a very wealthy customs official in Alexandria. Xxxxx’x xxxxxx Xxxxxxxx Xxxxxx Alexander attained the office of Emperor Xxxxx’ chief of staff (see Xxxxx, Creation, p. ix, and Xxxxxxxx/Xxxxxxx/xxx xxx Xxxx, ‘Philo’, p. 253). 36 His erudition is obvious in his works. Also, Xxxxxxxx states that Xxxxx was well-versed in Greek philosophy (AJ XVIII, 259). Xxxxx probably attended a gymnasium for his basic education in grammar, mathematics and music (Congr. 74–76). The form that his advanced education took is unclear. It is not certain whether Xxxxx acquired his knowledge on his own and/or had private tutors (see Xxxxx, ‘Philo’, p. 851, and Xxxxxxxx/Xxxxxxx/van den Hoek, ‘Philo’, pp. 254–255). 37 For sporting events see Prob. 26; Prov. II, 58; for visits to the theatre see Ebr. 177; Prob. 141; for Xxxxx’x attendance of banquets see XX XXX, 000–156; see also Xxxxxxxxxx, Jurisprudence, p. 2. For Xxxxx’x participation in political life see Spec. III, 4–5 and De Legatione ad Gaium. See also Xxxxxxxxxx, Xxxxx, p. 2. back to earth again.38 Xxxxx listed a few of the fundamental questions that will occupy the mind of a person with good sense.39 These questions are: whether there is one world or more, whether the four elements make up all things, or heaven and its contents have a special nature of their own, whether the visible world is created or uncreated, and if it is created, who the Creator is, his essence and his quality, and what his purpose in making the creation is. Like other Jewish intellectuals before him, Xxxxx found answers to such questions in the law of Xxxxx. Xxxxx made it his purpose to reveal the deeper philosophical truths that lie hidden within Xxxxx’ words.40