Common use of Threats Clause in Contracts

Threats. The success of any conservation or recovery program depends on eliminating or reducing the impact of activities that threaten the species’ existence. In the proposed rule to list the least chub as an endangered species (60 FR 50518), the Service identified and described pertinent problems and threats facing the least chub. These threats were identified based on the criteria for Federal listing as required by Section 4(a)(1) of the ESA. The following discussion summarizes the significant threats to least chub that will be addressed by conservation actions described in this Strategy. Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment Habitat loss and degradation have been indicated as major causes of the declines in least chub populations and distribution (Holden et al.1974; Xxxxxxx 1989; Xxxxx 1990). Although no studies have been made of the springs occupied by least chub, numerous other reports link livestock trampling and grazing with fish habitat degradation (water quality, vegetation type, habitat morphology, etc.) in streams and springs (Duff 1977; May and Somes 1981; Xxxxxx et al. 1989, Fleischner 1994). The majority of occupied and unoccupied habitats are currently not protected against grazing practices. Water levels have been identified as important in the life history of least chub (Xxxxxxx 1981; Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 1990). Interest has been expressed in water development and mining activities within the Snake Valley (Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 2005). These activities could significantly lower the water table, possibly drying up or lowering the water level in springs and marshes populated by least chub. These springs are dependent on underground water sources that flow from the Deep Creek Mountains to the west side of the valley. Several water development activities (e.g. irrigation practices) have also altered the habitat of least chub along the Wasatch Front. Most springs along the Wasatch Front have been significantly altered as a result of diversion, capping, and pumping activities. Predation, Competition, and Disease Xxxxxxx (1989) considered least chub to be "constantly threatened" by the introduction and presence of nonnative species. Surveys of spring complexes indicate that where nonnative fishes were introduced, few if any least chub remain (Xxxxxxxxx 1985). Introduced game fishes, including largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus xxxxxx), and xxxxx xxxxx (Salvelinus fontinalis) are predators on least chub, and these species have been regularly stocked into least chub habitat (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987; Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxx 1990). In addition to game fish, other nonnative fishes also have been released into least chub habitat. The mosquitofish, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva), and plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinis) have been introduced into least chub habitats, have similar diets to the least chub and are considered potential competitors. The mosquitofish poses a direct threat to the least chub because of its known aggressive predation on eggs and young of other fishes (Meffe 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). A recent study found least chub juveniles to be the most vulnerable to mosquitofish predation (Xxxxx et al. 2004). Other potential predators on least chub include frogs, ducks, gulls, herons, and egrets (Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). Under normal situations, predation from these sources would not negatively affect healthy populations of least chub. However, the combined effects of predation from the above sources, when populations are reduced by other factors, could result in further depletions of already fragile populations. Disease or incidence of parasitism is not presently major factors affecting least chub. However, a single parasite called blackspot (Neascus cuticola) is known to infest least chub, although all infested least chub examined appeared to be robust and in good condition (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979).

Threats. General overview The success of any conservation or recovery program depends on eliminating or reducing main threats for the impact of activities Balearic shearwater are those that threaten directly affect adult survival, both in the species’ existencebreeding grounds and at sea. In the proposed rule to list the least chub as an endangered species Predation by carnivores (60 FR 50518), the Service identified breeding colonies) and described pertinent problems and threats facing the least chub. These threats were identified based on the criteria for Federal listing as required by Section 4(a)(1fishing bycatch (at sea) of the ESA. The following discussion summarizes the significant threats to least chub that will be addressed by conservation actions described in this Strategy. Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment Habitat loss and degradation have been indicated as major causes of the declines in least chub populations and distribution (Holden et al.1974; Xxxxxxx 1989; Xxxxx 1990). Although no studies have been made of the springs occupied by least chub, numerous other reports link livestock trampling and grazing with fish habitat degradation (water quality, vegetation type, habitat morphology, etc.) in streams and springs (Duff 1977; May and Somes 1981; Xxxxxx et al. 1989, Fleischner 1994). The majority of occupied and unoccupied habitats are currently not protected against grazing practices. Water levels have been identified as important the two most serious ones. Acute pollution (e.g. oil spills) also poses a serious potential threat, as the highly gregarious behaviour of this shearwater at sea could result in the life history death of least chub large numbers of birds with an acute pollution event. Harvesting for human consumption used to be an important threat influencing both survival and productivity, but this practice is illegal nowadays and practically eradicated. Other threats affecting breeding performance or even (indirectly) adult survival are reduced food availability due to fisheries overexploitation and/or human-induced environmental change, predation by rats, breeding habitat degradation and background chemical pollution. Increasing research is necessary to assess the effect of these threats at the population level, as well as the impact of new potential threats, such as marine windfarms. Most threats coincide with those identified in the previous action plan (Xxxxxxx 1981; Xxxxx 1999), although some have been merged for the sake of synthesis and Xxxxxx 1990clarity, and others have been neglected given lack of information (see Annex 1). Interest As in 1999, predation by carnivores is one of the main threats, but to this it has been expressed in water development and mining activities within added the Snake Valley mortality caused by fishing gear (Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 2005i.e. fishing bycatch), which was considered low previously due to lack of data. These activities could significantly lower On the water table, possibly drying up or lowering the water level in springs and marshes populated by least chub. These springs are dependent on underground water sources that flow from the Deep Creek Mountains to the west side other hand one of the valley. Several water development activities (e.g. irrigation practices) have also altered main threats reported in 1999, the habitat lack of least chub along protection in the Wasatch Front. Most springs along breeding grounds, has been disregarded here as almost the Wasatch Front 100% of the breeding sites have been significantly altered as a result designated under legal protection; however, management plans are still pending and several colonies require urgent conservation action to address the threats mentioned above. List of diversioncritical and important threats Predation at colonies Predation by introduced carnivores (feral cats Felis catus, cappingxxxxx Xxxxxxx xxxxxxx, pine xxxxxx Xxxxxx martes) has likely shaped the current distribution of the species, restricted to small islets and pumping activities. Predation, Competition, and Disease Xxxxxxx coastal cliffs of difficult access (1989) considered least chub to be "constantly threatened" by the introduction and presence of nonnative species. Surveys of spring complexes indicate that where nonnative fishes were introduced, few if any least chub remain (Xxxxxxxxx 1985). Introduced game fishes, including largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus xxxxxx), and xxxxx xxxxx (Salvelinus fontinalis) are predators on least chub, and these species have been regularly stocked into least chub habitat (Xxxxxxx Alcover et al. 1979; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987; 1994, Xxxxxxxxx 1985; & XxXxxx 2002, Xxxx & Xxxxx 1990). In addition to game fish, other nonnative fishes also have been released into least chub habitat. The mosquitofish, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva), and plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinis) have been introduced into least chub habitats, have similar diets to the least chub and are considered potential competitors. The mosquitofish poses a direct threat to the least chub because of its known aggressive predation on eggs and young of other fishes (Meffe 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). A recent study found least chub juveniles to be the most vulnerable to mosquitofish predation (Xxxxx et al. 2004). Other potential predators on least chub include frogsAt present, duckscarnivores occur in the formerly strongholds of the species, gullsin Formentera, heronsas well as in sites of Menorca, Cabrera and egrets Ibiza (Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987Fig. 3). Under normal situationsWhere present, predation from these sources would not negatively affect healthy populations of least chub. Howeverpredators can kill several birds, the combined effects of predation from the above sources, when populations are reduced e.g. 21 non-juvenile individuals were reported killed by other factors, could result cats in further depletions of already fragile populations. Disease or incidence of parasitism is not presently major factors affecting least chub. However, a 1-month period in a single parasite called blackspot cave in Mola de Maó (Neascus cuticola) is known Menorca), in 2000 (Xxxx & Xxxxx 2004); all monitored nests in the same site in 2006 and 2007 were lost due to infest least chubpredation (CMA 2010). Overall, although all infested least chub examined appeared 1/3 of the Balearic shearwater population breeds in colonies with presence of carnivores according to be robust and current data (CMA 2010). Local extinctions due to the pressure of carnivores have been reported in good condition Xxxxxxx (Xxxxxxx et al. 19791999).

Threats. The success of any conservation or recovery program depends on eliminating or reducing the impact of activities that threaten the species’ existence. In the proposed rule to list the least chub as an endangered species (60 FR 50518), the Service identified and described pertinent problems and threats facing the least chub. These threats were identified based on the criteria for Federal listing as required by Section 4(a)(1) of the ESA. The following discussion summarizes the significant threats to least chub that will be addressed by conservation actions described in this Strategy. Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment Habitat loss and degradation have been indicated as major causes of the declines in least chub populations and distribution (Holden et al.1974; Xxxxxxx 1989; Xxxxx 1990). Although no studies have been made of the springs occupied by least chub, numerous other reports link livestock trampling and grazing with fish habitat degradation (water quality, vegetation type, habitat morphology, etc.) in streams and springs (Duff 1977; May and Somes 1981; Xxxxxx et al. 1989, Fleischner 1994). The majority of occupied and unoccupied habitats are currently not protected against grazing practices. Water levels have been identified as important in the life history of least chub (Xxxxxxx 1981; Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 1990). Interest has been expressed in water development and mining activities within the Snake Valley (Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 2005). These activities could significantly lower the water table, possibly drying up or lowering the water level in springs and marshes populated by least chub. These springs are dependent on underground water sources that flow from the Deep Creek Mountains to the west side of the valley. Several water development activities (e.g. irrigation practices) have also altered the habitat of least chub along the Wasatch Front. Most springs along the Wasatch Front have been significantly altered as a result of diversion, capping, and pumping activities. Predation, Competition, and Disease Xxxxxxx (1989) considered least chub to be "constantly threatened" by the introduction and presence of nonnative species. Surveys of spring complexes indicate that where nonnative fishes were introduced, few if any least chub remain (Xxxxxxxxx 1985). Introduced game fishes, including largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus xxxxxx), and xxxxx xxxxx (Salvelinus fontinalis) are predators on least chub, and these species have been regularly stocked into least chub habitat (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987; Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxx 1990). In addition to game fish, other nonnative fishes also have been released into least chub habitat. The mosquitofish, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva), and plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinis) have been introduced into least chub habitats, have similar diets to the least chub and are considered potential competitors. The mosquitofish poses a direct threat to the least chub because of its known aggressive predation on eggs and young of other fishes (Meffe 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). A recent study found least chub juveniles to be the most vulnerable to mosquitofish predation (Xxxxx et al. 2004). Other potential predators on least chub include frogs, ducks, gulls, herons, and egrets (Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). Under normal situations, predation from these sources would not negatively affect healthy populations of least chub. However, the combined effects of predation from the above sources, when populations are reduced by other factors, could result in further depletions of already fragile populations. Disease or incidence of parasitism is are not presently major factors affecting least chub. However, a single parasite called blackspot (Neascus cuticola) is known to infest least chub, although all infested least chub examined appeared to be robust and in good condition (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979).

Threats. General overview The success of any conservation or recovery program depends on eliminating or reducing main threats for the impact of activities Balearic shearwater are those that threaten directly affect adult survival, both in the species’ existencebreeding grounds and at sea. In the proposed rule to list the least chub as an endangered species Predation by carnivores (60 FR 50518), the Service identified breeding colonies) and described pertinent problems and threats facing the least chub. These threats were identified based on the criteria for Federal listing as required by Section 4(a)(1fishing bycatch (at sea) of the ESA. The following discussion summarizes the significant threats to least chub that will be addressed by conservation actions described in this Strategy. Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment Habitat loss and degradation have been indicated as major causes of the declines in least chub populations and distribution (Holden et al.1974; Xxxxxxx 1989; Xxxxx 1990). Although no studies have been made of the springs occupied by least chub, numerous other reports link livestock trampling and grazing with fish habitat degradation (water quality, vegetation type, habitat morphology, etc.) in streams and springs (Duff 1977; May and Somes 1981; Xxxxxx et al. 1989, Fleischner 1994). The majority of occupied and unoccupied habitats are currently not protected against grazing practices. Water levels have been identified as important the two most serious ones. Acute pollution (e.g. oil spills) also poses a serious potential threat, as the highly gregarious behaviour of this shearwater at sea could result in the life history death of least chub large numbers of birds with an acute pollution event. Harvesting for human consumption used to be an important threat influencing both survival and productivity, but this practice is illegal nowadays and practically eradicated. Other threats affecting breeding performance or even (indirectly) adult survival are reduced food availability due to fisheries overexploitation and/or human-induced environmental change, predation by rats, breeding habitat degradation and background chemical pollution. Increasing research is necessary to assess the effect of these threats at the population level, as well as the impact of new potential threats, such as marine windfarms. Most threats coincide with those identified in the previous action plan (Xxxxxxx 1981; Xxxxx 1999), although some have been merged for the sake of synthesis and Xxxxxx 1990clarity, and others have been neglected given lack of information (see Annex 1). Interest As in 1999, predation by carnivores is one of the main threats, but to this it has been expressed in water development and mining activities within added the Snake Valley mortality caused by fishing gear (Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 2005i.e. fishing bycatch), which was considered low previously due to lack of data. These activities could significantly lower On the water table, possibly drying up or lowering the water level in springs and marshes populated by least chub. These springs are dependent on underground water sources that flow from the Deep Creek Mountains to the west side other hand one of the valley. Several water development activities (e.g. irrigation practices) have also altered main threats reported in 1999, the habitat lack of least chub along protection in the Wasatch Front. Most springs along breeding grounds, has been disregarded here as almost the Wasatch Front 100% of the breeding sites have been significantly altered as a result designated under legal protection; however, management plans are still pending and several colonies require urgent conservation action to address the threats mentioned above. List of diversioncritical and important threats Predation at colonies Predation by introduced carnivores (feral cats Felis catus, cappingxxxxx Xxxxxxx xxxxxxx, pine xxxxxx Xxxxxx martes) has likely shaped the current distribution of the species, restricted to small islets and pumping activities. Predation, Competition, and Disease Xxxxxxx (1989) considered least chub to be "constantly threatened" by the introduction and presence coastal cliffs of nonnative species. Surveys of spring complexes indicate that where nonnative fishes were introduced, few if any least chub remain (Xxxxxxxxx 1985). Introduced game fishes, including largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus xxxxxx), and xxxxx xxxxx (Salvelinus fontinalis) are predators on least chub, and these species have been regularly stocked into least chub habitat difficult access (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987; 1994, Xxxxxxxxx 1985; & XxXxxx 2002, Xxxx & Xxxxx 1990). In addition to game fish, other nonnative fishes also have been released into least chub habitat. The mosquitofish, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva), and plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinis) have been introduced into least chub habitats, have similar diets to the least chub and are considered potential competitors. The mosquitofish poses a direct threat to the least chub because of its known aggressive predation on eggs and young of other fishes (Meffe 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). A recent study found least chub juveniles to be the most vulnerable to mosquitofish predation (Xxxxx et al. 2004). Other potential predators on least chub include frogsAt present, duckscarnivores occur in the formerly strongholds of the species, gullsin Formentera, heronsas well as in sites of Menorca, Xxxxxxx and egrets Ibiza (Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987Fig. 3). Under normal situationsWhere present, predation from these sources would not negatively affect healthy populations of least chub. Howeverpredators can kill several birds, the combined effects of predation from the above sources, when populations are reduced e.g. 21 non-juvenile individuals were reported killed by other factors, could result cats in further depletions of already fragile populations. Disease or incidence of parasitism is not presently major factors affecting least chub. However, a 1-month period in a single parasite called blackspot cave in Mola de Maó (Neascus cuticola) is known Menorca), in 2000 (Xxxx & Xxxxx 2004); all monitored nests in the same site in 2006 and 2007 were lost due to infest least chubpredation (CMA 2010). Overall, although all infested least chub examined appeared 1/3 of the Balearic shearwater population breeds in colonies with presence of carnivores according to be robust and current data (CMA 2010). Local extinctions due to the pressure of carnivores have been reported in good condition Xxxxxxx (Xxxxxxx et al. 19791999).

Threats. The success of any conservation or recovery program depends on eliminating or reducing the impact of activities that threaten the species’ existence. In the proposed rule to list the least chub as an endangered species (60 FR 50518), the Service identified and described pertinent problems and threats facing the least chub. These threats were identified based on the criteria for Federal listing as required by Section 4(a)(1) of the ESA. The following discussion summarizes the significant threats to least chub that will be addressed by conservation actions described in this Strategy. Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment Habitat loss and degradation have been indicated as major causes of the declines in least chub populations and distribution (Holden Xxxxxx et al.1974; Xxxxxxx 1989; Xxxxx 1990). Although no studies have been made of the springs occupied by least chub, numerous other reports link livestock trampling and grazing with fish habitat degradation (water quality, vegetation type, habitat morphology, etc.) in streams and springs (Duff 1977; May and Somes 1981; Xxxxxx et al. 1989, Fleischner Xxxxxxxxxx 1994). The majority of occupied and unoccupied habitats are currently not protected against grazing practices. Water levels have been identified as important in the life history of least chub (Xxxxxxx 1981; Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 1990). Interest has been expressed in water development and mining activities within the Snake Valley (Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 2005). These activities could significantly lower the water table, possibly drying up or lowering the water level in springs and marshes populated by least chub. These springs are dependent on underground water sources that flow from the Deep Creek Mountains to the west side of the valley. Several water development activities (e.g. irrigation practices) have also altered the habitat of least chub along the Wasatch Front. Most springs along the Wasatch Front have been significantly altered as a result of diversion, capping, and pumping activities. Predation, Competition, and Disease Xxxxxxx (1989) considered least chub to be "constantly threatened" by the introduction and presence of nonnative species. Surveys of spring complexes indicate that where nonnative fishes were introduced, few if any least chub remain (Xxxxxxxxx 1985). Introduced game fishes, including largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus xxxxxx), and xxxxx xxxxx (Salvelinus fontinalis) are predators on least chub, and these species have been regularly stocked into least chub habitat (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987; Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxx 1990). In addition to game fish, other nonnative fishes also have been released into least chub habitat. The mosquitofish, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva), and plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinis) have been introduced into least chub habitats, have similar diets to the least chub and are considered potential competitors. The mosquitofish poses a direct threat to the least chub because of its known aggressive predation on eggs and young of other fishes (Meffe Xxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). A recent study found least chub juveniles to be the most vulnerable to mosquitofish predation (Xxxxx et al. 2004). Other potential predators on least chub include frogs, ducks, gulls, herons, and egrets (Xxxxxxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). Under normal situations, predation from these sources would not negatively affect healthy populations of least chub. However, the combined effects of predation from the above sources, when populations are reduced by other factors, could result in further depletions of already fragile populations. Disease or incidence of parasitism is not presently major factors affecting least chub. However, a single parasite called blackspot (Neascus cuticola) is known to infest least chub, although all infested least chub examined appeared to be robust and in good condition (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979).

Threats. The success of any conservation or recovery program depends on eliminating or reducing the impact of activities that threaten the species’ existence. In the proposed rule to list the least chub as an endangered species (60 FR 50518), the Service identified and described pertinent problems and threats facing the least chub. These threats were identified based on the criteria for Federal listing as required by Section 4(a)(1) of the ESA. The following discussion summarizes the significant threats to least chub that will be addressed by conservation actions described in this Strategy. Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment Habitat loss and degradation have been indicated as major causes of the declines in least chub populations and distribution (Holden et al.1974; Xxxxxxx 1989; Xxxxx 1990). Although no studies have been made of the springs occupied by least chub, numerous other reports link livestock trampling and grazing with fish habitat degradation (water quality, vegetation type, habitat morphology, etc.) in streams and springs (Duff Xxxx 1977; May and Somes 1981; Xxxxxx et al. 1989, Fleischner 1994). The majority of occupied and unoccupied habitats are currently not protected against grazing practices. Water levels have been identified as important in the life history of least chub (Xxxxxxx Lamarra 1981; Xxxxx and Xxxxxx 1990). Interest has been expressed in water development and mining activities within the Snake Valley (Xxxxx Kirby and Xxxxxx Hurlow 2005). These activities could significantly lower the water table, possibly drying up or lowering the water level in springs and marshes populated by least chub. These springs are dependent on underground water sources that flow from the Deep Creek Mountains to the west side of the valley. Several water development activities (e.g. irrigation practices) have also altered the habitat of least chub along the Wasatch Front. Most springs along the Wasatch Front have been significantly altered as a result of diversion, capping, and pumping activities. Predation, Competition, and Disease Xxxxxxx (1989) considered least chub to be "constantly threatened" by the introduction and presence of nonnative species. Surveys of spring complexes indicate that where nonnative fishes were introduced, few if any least chub remain (Xxxxxxxxx Osmundson 1985). Introduced game fishes, including largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus xxxxxx), and xxxxx xxxxx (Salvelinus fontinalis) are predators on least chub, and these species have been regularly stocked into least chub habitat (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987; Xxxxxxxxx Osmundson 1985; Xxxxx 1990). In addition to game fish, other nonnative fishes also have been released into least chub habitat. The mosquitofish, rainwater killifish (Lucania parva), and plains killifish (Fundulus zebrinis) have been introduced into least chub habitats, have similar diets to the least chub and are considered potential competitors. The mosquitofish poses a direct threat to the least chub because of its known aggressive predation on eggs and young of other fishes (Meffe Xxxxx 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). A recent study found least chub juveniles to be the most vulnerable to mosquitofish predation (Xxxxx et al. 2004). Other potential predators on least chub include frogs, ducks, gulls, herons, and egrets (Xxxxxxxxx Osmundson 1985; Xxxxxx and Xxxxxx 1987). Under normal situations, predation from these sources would not negatively affect healthy populations of least chub. However, the combined effects of predation from the above sources, when populations are reduced by other factors, could result in further depletions of already fragile populations. Disease or incidence of parasitism is are not presently major factors affecting least chub. However, a single parasite called blackspot (Neascus cuticola) is known to infest least chub, although all infested least chub examined appeared to be robust and in good condition (Xxxxxxx et al. 1979).