Health Impacts of Long‐Term Exposure to Mobile Sample Clauses

Health Impacts of Long‐Term Exposure to Mobile. Source Emissions Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with many health impacts, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) linked to ozone exposure (O3) (Xx, Xxxxxxx, and Xxxxxxxx et al., 2013); acute lower respiratory illness, cerebrovascular disease (e.g., stroke), ischemic heart disease (e.g., angina and myocardial infraction), COPD, and lung cancer linked to PM2.5 (Xxxxxxx et al., 2014). Xxxxxxxxx, Xxxxx, Fnais, Xxxxxxxxxx and Xxxxxx (2015) used a global atmospheric chemistry model to study the link between premature mortality and different emission source categories (e.g., agriculture, power generation, industry, and land traffic) in urban and rural environments. The results suggested that land traffic emissions were responsible for about 20% of mortality by ambient PM2.5 and O3 in Germany, the U.K. and the U.S.. Globally, land traffic emissions accounted for approximately 5% of mortality. Emissions of NOx from land traffic were also estimated to be responsible for 5% mortality globally (Xxxxxxxxx et al., 2015). Xxxx et al. (2013) conducted a meta-analysis based on epidemiological studies of long-term exposure to PM2.5, PM10, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and elemental carbon (i.e., NO2 and elemental carbon are indicators of land traffic emissions) on mortality from all-cause, cardiovascular disease and respiratory disease. The pooled estimate of excess risk per 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 exposure was 6% for all-cause and 11% for cardiovascular mortality. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 was found to be associated with mortality from cardiovascular disease (particularly ischemic heart disease) more than from nonmalignant respiratory diseases. Xxxx et al. (2013) also identified heterogeneity in the mortality effect of PM2.5 across studies, likely due to differences in particle composition, infiltration of particles indoors, population characteristics, and the exposure assessment methods used for the studies. In addition, all-cause mortality was found to be significantly associated with elemental carbon (6% excess risk per 1 μg/m3) and with NO2 (5% excess risk per 10 μg/m3). Limited by the studies available for the meta-analysis, no evidence was found for association between long-term coarse particulate matter (PM10) exposure and mortality. Although long-term exposure to ambient NO2 was found to be associated with increased mortality, it was not clear whether NO2 exerted the mortality effects independently or in combination with other poll...