Child maltreatment. Child maltreatment was assessed using a multi-informant approach and with a combination of two questionnaires: the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTSPC; Xxxxxx, Xxxxx, Xxxxxxxxx, Xxxxx, & Xxxxxx, 1998) and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ; Xxxxxxxxx et al., 1994; Xxxxxx et al., 2009). We administered four subscales: (1) physical abuse (13 items, CTSPC), (2) emotional abuse (five items, CTSPC), (3) physical neglect (four items, CTSPC), and (4) emotional neglect (six items, CTSPC and CTQ). The physical abuse scale can be further divided into minor (five items), severe (four items), and very severe (four items) physical abuse. For consistency in response options, a five-point scale ranging from (1) never to (5) (almost) always was used for all items. The scores on the four scales were averaged to achieve an overall ‘maltreatment’ score. Additionally, we calculated separate ‘abuse’ and ‘neglect’ scores. The ‘abuse’ score was the average of physical and emotional abuse and the ‘neglect’ score the average of physical and emotional neglect. For participants under 12 years of age, experienced maltreatment was assessed orally and questions about very severe physical abuse were omitted. For each parent-child dyad, we averaged parent- and child-report which were significantly correlated (abuse: r(73) = .46, p < .001; neglect: r(73) = .27, p = .02). For abuse items, Xxxxxxxx’s alphas were .87 for child report and .82 for parent report. For neglect items, the Cronbach’s alphas were .78 for child report and .72 for parent report. It should be noted that for the child report, three of the physical neglect items showed no variability because none of the children reported ever not having had enough food, that their parents did not take them to the doctor when needed, or that their parents were too drunk or high to take care of them. Maltreatment was used as a continuous variable.
Child maltreatment. Child maltreatment is a major public health issue. The National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) identifies child maltreatment as any exposure to physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect or domestic violence. In the wider research literature, the terms "adverse childhood experiences" (ACEs), "victimization" and "trauma" have been applied in a more generic manner to refer to the aforementioned forms of abuse and neglect, as well as to other negative childhood experiences such as peer bullying, exposure to major traumatic life events and parental loss (Xxxxx, Sorrentino, Xxxxxx, & Xxxxxx, 2013). However, the most widely accepted definition of child maltreatment comprises child sexual abuse (CSA), child physical abuse (CPA), child emotional abuse (sometimes referred to as psychological abuse) and child neglect. Table 1 provides definitions for these forms of abuse and neglect (Xxxxxx et al., 2012). Currently, over 40,000 children in England are on the child protection register (Department for Education, 2012). Over 18,000 children are registered for being exposed to neglect, over 4,000 are registered for being exposed to CPA, over 2,000 are registered for exposure to CSA and over 12,000 are registered for exposure to emotional abuse. Global prevalence rates for child maltreatment remain uncertain, with estimates varying between 2% and 67% (Xxxxxx et al., 2012). These discrepancies are likely because much violence against children remains hidden and unreported due to fear and stigma, as well as due to a general societal acceptance of this type of violence. Table 1. Common definitions of child maltreatment Type of maltreatment Description Child physical abuse Physical abuse of a child is defined as the intentional use of physical force against a child that results in, or has a high likelihood of resulting in, harm for the child’s health, survival, development, or dignity. This includes hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning, and suffocating. Much physical violence against children in the home is inflicted with the object of punishing. Child sexual abuse Sexual abuse is defined as the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent to, or for which the child is not developmentally prepared or else that violates the laws or social taboos of society. Sexual abuse can be perpetrated by adults and other children who ...
Child maltreatment. A Developmental Psychopathology Approach 978‐1‐4338‐2029‐8 Clinical Decision Making in Mental Health Practice
Child maltreatment. The Knowns and the Unknowns Parents should offer security and protection to their children and parental care is the primary mechanism through which child survival is ensured. Unfortunately, in some situations parents do not or cannot protect their children and in some cases parents are the ones who are causing the harm to children they ideally would protect. Any type of threatening or violent interaction between a parent or caregiver and a minor that (potentially) causes harm to the minor either through action or inaction is described as child maltreatment (Jeugdwet artikel 1;World Health Organization, 2006). We can differentiate child maltreatment along two dimensions (1) active vs. passive, and (2) emotional vs. physical. The active types of child maltreatment are emotional, physical, and sexual abuse and the passive types of child maltreatment are emotional and physical neglect.1 Child maltreatment affects approximately 2 to 4% of children on a yearly basis (Sedlak, Mettenburg, Basena, Petta, XxXxxxxxx, et al., 2010; xxx Xxxxxx et al., 2020) and in most cases it is perpetrated by a parent (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2019). Experiencing child maltreatment is associated with considerable suffering. Children who experience child maltreatment tend to have more internalizing and externalizing problems (Xxxxxx et al., 2019), be emotionally dysregulated (Xxxxxxxx et al., 2019), are less likely to be securely attached to their parent (Xxx et al., 2010), are more prone to risk taking behavior (Xxxxx et al., 2015) and show cognitive delays (Xxxxxxxxxx et al., 2020). Many children carry these negative consequences forth into adulthood. Adults who have experienced child maltreatment are at a higher risk for depression (Xxxxxxxxx et al., 2020), post- traumatic stress disorder (Xxxxxx et al., 2018), alcohol dependence (Xxxxxxx et al., 2014), and have a higher suicide risk (Xxxx et al., 2001). Child maltreatment is also associated with health risk behavior such as smoking (Xxxxxxx et al., 2014), early health risk markers such as obesity (Xxxxxx & Xxx, 2014), hypertension (Xxxxxxx et al., 2018), allostatic load (Xxxxx, Xxxxx, et al., 2015), and lower living standards (Xxxxx Xxxxxxx et al., 2017). In the long term, child maltreatment manifests as increased risk for cardiovascular disease (Xxxx et al., 2017), diabetes (Xxxxxx et al., 2015), cancer (Xxxxxx-Xxxxxxx & Xxxxxxxxxxxx, 2009) and, ultimately, 1 In this dissertation, we focus on physical and emot...
