Civil Society Organizations in Theory. When studying political participation, Xxxxxxxx (2014) specifically focused on NGOs as problem-oriented civil society organizations (CSOs) that have grown in number and influence in developing countries since the 1980s and that represent minorities and excluded members of society. The term “civil society” is defined as associations that “are separate from the state, enjoy some autonomy in relations from the state, and are formed voluntarily by members of society to protect or extend their interests, values or identities.” (Manor, Xxxxxxxx & Xxxxx, 1999). Unlike informal membership organizations such as sports clubs, charities, or community groups that engage in a variety of voluntary activities distinct from politics and business, formally-registered NGOs commit to solving systemic social problems such as human rights violations, environmental degradation, or poverty. NGOs reach out to politically excluded people and address politically undervalued issues. According to Xxxx (2013), the current impact of NGOs is more often evaluated as having a reciprocal relationship with the government because the third sector often provides consultative services to the government and serves as a channel for citizen voice and legitimization of state actions. Therefore, the connection of NGOs and the government could be valuable for both parties. NGOs promote normative claims towards the common good and often serve as public experts to advocate for these claims. Depending on the ideological position, grassroots organizations tend to engage in local education advocacy either by stressing the issues of parent- centered school choice and civic and moral values or by focusing on access and equality (Xxxxx, Xxxxxxxxx & XxXxxx-Xxxxx, 2009). The groups that feel that their needs are not met by the mainstream schooling policies tend to advocate for policy changes. Specifically, parents form a main driving force and exhibit four approaches to advocacy as classified by Trainor (2010). She described parents serving as intuitive advocates who know the special needs of their children best, disability experts, strategists (since they often know the processes necessary to be established to make their children’s needs met), and agents for systemic change. Parents often combine several approaches simultaneously to achieve effective results. Apart from parents, groups that are not directly oppressed by the policies but promote equality as their primary agenda may also engage in education ad...
