Some conclusions. Few specialized products are currently approved and effective Among the substances currently approved for use in Europe and in organic agriculture, some, such as potassium biocarbonate, could help reduce the use copper. The basic substances that have been approved (horsetail and nettle extracts, vinegar, sodium bicarbonate, etc.) are readily available, but their efficacy against the diseases targeted by copper is limited to non-existent. Many promising future avenues for research Many essential oils have been tested in vitro, but few have been the focus of field trials. Essential oils rich in thymol and carvacrol show strong activity in vitro against a wide range of plant pathogens, and some studies have shown their potential in the field. The same is true for essential oils of clove and tea tree. Among plant extracts, sage extract and licorice extract show promise against grapevine downy mildew, while yucca extract and black poplar extract show potential against apple scab. The use of bacterial metabolites as surfactants, combining antifungal activity with the stimulation of plant defences, also deserves further study. Finally, many biocidal substances have been shown to be effective under crop production conditions, but their ecotoxicological and toxicological effects must be tested before they can be authorized for use as active ingredients or as basic substances. Some of these substances are recognized as antibiotics (based on their nature and on their activity with respect to certain human pathogens), and will thus not be approved for use in crop protection, still less in OA. Some key impediments to innovation Product development and market introduction of materials based on the biocidal active substances described here will be determined in part by questions of intellectual property protection and the affiliations of the research groups involved. Substances that can be classified as basic substances have a greater likelihood of becoming available to farmers and gardeners, both professionals and hobbyists.
Some conclusions. An abundance of genetic resources for variety development For the majority of the relevant disease systems – including downy mildew, late blight, and scab – a plethora of genetic resources are available for use in breeding programs. Generally obtained from species closely related to the crops in question, this material often includes specific resistance genes with limited longevity in the field (one to several years maximum); in some cases, QTL for quantitative resistance can also be found. Resistance to other pathogens targeted by copper (particularly bacterial diseases) are more frequently of the quantitative type. Breeding for resistance is a relatively new priority Selecting for resistance has only recently emerged as a priority within breeding programs. Previously, other objectives (yield, agronomic traits, crop quality characteristics) were considered more important; in some cases, resistance genes were found to be genetically linked to undesirable agronomic traits (lateness, for example); in other cases, difficulties existed with respect to the genetics of the resistant trait (e.g., a polygenic trait difficult to introgress; low fertility of resulting crosses, requiring the use of cell biology techniques). Breeding efforts can become focused on one or a few major specific resistance genes as soon as these become available. Gene stacking is often emphasized (as with downy mildew in grapevines and lettuce, for example), sometimes including QTL for partial resistance, which can strengthen the longevity of the stacked genes. The use of new genomic techniques, in tandem with an improved understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms (identification of effectors and the use effectoromics for rapid assessment of large populations; gene editing), have the potential to greatly reduce the time necessary to obtain new varieties or other interesting genetic combinations. Nevertheless, questions persist as to the acceptability of these techniques (especially in OA) and as to the importance of different traits depending on the production system (relative value of different criteria, introduction of new traits into specific ideotypes). Limited breeding efforts specifically for OA Plant breeding intended specifically for OA remains rare: 95% of varieties currently used in OA were selected for the management regimes of conventional agriculture, with high levels of inputs. In practice, however, the most important traits for selection are different for the two ...
Some conclusions. From this project, it becomes clear that the common activities of all these SPCs are: • The promotion of shortsea shipping (intermodal); • Bringing stakeholders together; • Addressing issues of bottlenecks; • European cooperation. All of these 5 centres also have similar promotional activities that are discussed below. • Promotional Activities These fall into the following categories: o Promotional material; o Website and database; o Events; o Brokering; o Lobbying; The CIPROC study revealed the following activities in the above categories: • Promotion material These consist of: o Brochures on intermodal transport; o Newsletters; o Fact sheets; o Standard multimedia presentation; o Policy documents tailored to target groups; • Website and database Online availability of information is considered essential. The information consists of: o A website explaining the different types of transport and services, and showing contact details; o Database containing transport services and service providers; • Events The promotion entities organise and participate in events. The activities in this category consist of: o Organising events, such as seminars, workshops and conferences; o Presenting at events; o Exhibits of promotion material at events; • Other The participating promotion entities each have their specific additional services and activities. The ones identified are: o Broker function - bringing potential clients in contact with service transport and logistic service providers; o Preparing national research agendas; o Lobbying; The CIPROC study emphasised that the SPCs typically promote short sea shipping through events or digital information (websites), as radio or TV programmes are excluded by their cost. Therefore to improve their promotional role, the PROPS project needs to look carefully into strengths and weaknesses of the SPCs before making any recommendations. • Indicators To evaluate business activities companies usually apply different indicators to measure their performances. For example, indicators for the CIPROC project focused on intermodal areas, and indicators for the SKEMA (Sustainable Knowledge Platform for the European maritime and logistics industry) project focused on sustainability of transport companies. However, some of these could be used to evaluate the promotional activities of the SPCs as well.
