Changing Sociocultural Context. Many African societies are witnessing transformation of gender identities. In many contexts, men are struggling to fulfill their traditional roles as financial providers in changing social and economic environments (Xxxxx, et al., 2011; Xxxxxx, 2007; Xxxxxx, 2005). As a result, studies have recorded a transformation of ideas of gender identity within these changing social contexts. Researchers in the Kisii District of Kenya found that the migratory labor system constructed during the colonial period was associated with the reconstruction of gender norms. Men were forced to travel far from their place of origin in order to find stable employment to support their families. In the late 1980s with the absence of men in communities, women began to realize that they could not depend on their husbands for safety and food security and adapted to their new roles as both providers and caretakers of their family. As a result, men felt frustrated and devalued, which resulted in the adoption of destructive health behaviors, such as alcohol abuse (Silberschimidt, 1990). More recent studies echo similar connections to male disempowerment and more destructive health behaviors. The reconstruction of masculinity within an economically poor area where there are few employment opportunities has fostered social environments where multiple concurrent relationships are common. In Uganda in 2007, the increasing number of unmarried women was partially attributed to the lack of substantial employment for men. Since men’s incomes were not sufficient, they could not pay the full bride price and establish themselves within a community. This resulted in a the delay of marriage and normalcy of premarital relationships (Xxxxxx, 2007). In South Africa, the lack of employment has allowed men to avoid responsibility for the children that they father, leaving women with the burden of providing for and raising children (Xxxxxx, 2005; Xxxxxx, et al., 2009; Xxxxx, 2003). In 2001, less than 30% of men and women over the age of 15 years old were married among African populations in South Africa (Hunter, 2005). A couple of studies have found that women in urban settings are becoming more financially independent and asserting themselves in intimate relationships and becoming more financially independent (Xxxxxxx, et al., 2008; Xxxxxxxx, et al., 2012). It has been noted that the reconstruction of gender identities has the potential to increase healthcare seeking behaviors (XxxXxxxx, 2003). In South ...
