Ecosystem based approach. As the recovery of depleted fish stocks has become a key issue in fisheries management and fisheries science (as most fishing countries committed themselves in 2002 as part of the World Summit on Sustainable Development), an ecosystem based approach to fisheries management (EBFM) has become more prominent. Pikkitch et al., (2004) outlined the main elements of EBFM, as (1) avoiding the degradation of ecosystems; (2) minimizing the risk of irreversible change; (3) obtaining long-term socio-economic benefits from fishing; and (4) adopting a precautionary approach to uncertainty (Xxxxxx & Cochrane, 2005; Pikitch et al., 2004). It is important to point out that, in fisheries, the application of the precautionary approach neither creates a margin of error and nor does it take account of known risks of illegal, unregulated, or unreported fishing. Before results-based management can be achieved, the underpinning organization needs to be put in order (Wakefield, 2010). The evolution of EBFM has led to a reevaluation of management targets for fisheries and the role of management bodies (Xxxxxx & Xxxxxxxx, 2005). Pitcher et al., (2009) observe a wide spread agreement for a need of a fishery management system that recognizes explicitly how food web linkages and human interventions may affect sustainability in aquatic ecosystems (Pikitch 2004; Xxxxxxx et al., 2004; Brodziak & Link, 2002). They point out that “implementation, however, of the stock-specific ‘traffic light’ reference points approach from the FAO guidelines will be difficult until clear and simply measured EBFM indicators for management are agreed by the international community (Collie & Xxxxxxxx, 2001; Caddy & Xxxxx, 1995), a task that has proved more difficult than some envisaged, especially in data-poor fisheries (Link, 2005; Rice, 2005)”. Although EBM is a useful part of fishery regulation, it is not a universal solution as basic issues of capacity, regulation and rights are likely to be transferred to other areas from a protected area (Beddington, 2007). Pitcher et al., (2009) examine the progress of implementing ecosystem-based management of fisheries in 33 countries and find that only two countries have ‘good’ performance ratings over 70% (of implementation process completed), namely Norway and USA. Four countries have ‘acceptable’ grades between 60% and 70% (i.e. Iceland, South Africa, Canada and Australia), while 16 of the 33 countries have ‘fail grades’ of 40% and less (i.e. UK, Argentina, France...
