Philo of Alexandria. Xxxxx of Alexandria was a wealthy Jewish intellectual, a member of a prosperous family, living in Alexandria in Egypt in the first half of the first century CE.31 28 Xxxxxxx Xxxxxxxx discusses the identification of the divine with perfect being and seeing perfection as the highest virtue in general, as the reason why forgiveness (both divine and inter-human) was little appreciated in ancient philosophy (see Griswold, Forgiveness, pp. 2–14, and similarly in Griswold, ‘Plato’). Xxxxxxx provides an additional form of critique of forgiveness in ancient philosophy: Xxxxx claimed that it sustains injustice instead of correcting it (see Xxxxxxx, Verzeihens, pp. 139–142). 29 Xxxxx criticises sacrifices as a means for placating the gods in Rep. II, 364a–366b. He presents a critique of the traditional anthropomorphic poetic presentation of the gods in Rep. II, 377b–383c. Here, he argues that if the gods were truly as emotionally fickle and scheming as the poets presented them, they could not be an example for virtuous human behaviour (see also Xxxxx, ‘Zorn’, pp. 147–148). Xxxxxxxxx argues for the immutability of the divine in Met. XII, 1072b, and in Eth. Eud., VIII, 1249b 12 he argues that God needs nothing. For the development of Greek natural theology and how it contrasted with traditional presentations of the divine see Xxxxxx, Theology, pp. 23, 47, 180–181. See further Long, Hellenistic Philosophy, pp. 41–49 for an overview of Epicurus’ theology and his critique of traditional presentations of the divine. 30 Incidentally, such an identification of God with perfection still appears as an important philosophical objection against ascribing forgiveness to God, as illustrated by examples of Minas, ‘Forgiveness’ and Xxxxxx, ‘Trespasses’. 31 For introductions to Philo see: Xxxxxxx, Les idées; Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxxxxxx; Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxxxx, Xxxxxx; Xxxxxxxxxx, Introduction; Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxx, ‘Philo’; Xxxxxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxxx, Jews; Xxxxx-Xxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx; Xxxxx, ‘Philo’; Xxxxxxxx/Xxxxxxx/xxx xxx Xxxx, ‘Philo’; Xxxxxxx, Biography. The only anchor we have for dating Xxxxx’x life is his participation in an embassy to Emperor Xxxxx, which Xxxxx described in his treatise Legatio ad Gaium. This embassy must have taken place sometime around 38 and 39 CE, shortly after the Jewish community in Alexandria had been in heavy conflict with their Greek neighbours.32 The city of Alexandria in Egypt was a highly developed metropolis, a melting pot for Greek, Egyptia...
