International Measures Sample Clauses

International Measures. National governments often cooperate with each other informally by exchanging information, investigating attacks or crimes, preventing or stopping harmful conduct, providing evidence, and even arranging for the rendition of individuals to a requesting state. States have also made formal, interna- tional agreements that bear directly or indirectly on cyber security. Extradition treaties generally apply to a list of activities that constitute crimes in the states that agree to arrest and/or extradite individu- als to each other. Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (“MLATs”) also generally apply to a list of agreed crimes; they require state parties to assist one another by providing information, evidence, and other forms of cooperation when requested to do so in such situations. These international agreements apply to the criminal activities specified, including situations in which the alleged criminals have used cyber systems in those activities. International agreements that potentially bear upon cyber-security activities also include treaties (the UN Charter and Geneva Conventions) and universally accepted rules of conduct (customary law). Cyberattacks that have kinetic effects equivalent to a physical use of force, for example, are likely to be considered “armed attacks” under the UN Charter to the same extent as physical uses of force. The U.S. is reported to have proposed this concept as a governing principle in discussions with Russia and other states.20 In addition, the right of states to exercise self-defense or to take countermeasures in response to such attacks would depend on their potential consequences. International law also provides rules related to the use of force during armed conflict that presumably apply to cyberattacks, including for example requirements that noncombatants and civilian institutions such as hospitals not be deliberately attacked, and that uses of force be restricted to measures that are necessary and proportionate. Consider- able uncertainty exists, however, as to the application of rules written to regulate physical force to uses of cyberforce, and the issues are further complicated by the fact that the scope of use-of-force rules is far from universally agreed. The most significant, multilateral arrangement that specifically addresses aspects of cyberattacks and exploitation is the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (“CEC”). The CEC is a law-enforcement treaty designed to develop a common criminal-law policy aimed...