for whom. Xxxxxxxx lists the limits of contract theory in her book Frontiers of Justice: ‘For the contractarian, the question “Who makes the laws and principles?” is treated as having, necessarily, structurally, the same answer as the question “For whom are the laws and principles made?” This is so because of the contractarian’s whole picture of social cooperation: people under pressure get together to secure their mutual advantage, by accepting constraints that are dictated by equal respect for the other parties to the bargain. That initial device ensures that they will be considering themselves as the primary if not the only subjects of the principles of justice that they subsequently design. Other beings can enter only derivatively, through relations of concern and trusteeship.’129 Which entities have moral status? Xxxx Xxxx Xxxxxx defines moral status thus: ‘To have moral status is to be an entity toward which moral agents have, or can have, moral obligations.’130 In universal subjectivism, to have an obligation means that in the original position you should try to maximize any worst-off position. You are obliged to your own perspective that can hypothetically be actualized in the real world as any sentient being. Universal subjectivism takes into account the needs of all sentient beings anywhere at any time. All entities that are capable of suffering pain, are possible positions in which you yourself could happen to find yourself. Therefore, all entities capable of experiencing pain have moral status. Philosopher Xxxxx Xxxxxxx takes a similar starting point for moral reasoning: the individual without the borders of the species. He calls this view ‘moral individualism’. The purpose of Xxxxxx’s theory131 is to replace traditional moral and religious codes. Universal subjectivism also takes as starting point the individual, i.e. any sentient being. The veil of ignorance is an informational restraint, a means to make the contingencies of your particular existence explicit and to suppress the tendency to create a special position for one’s own. In this model you cannot reasonably want misery for yourself. This is an important point, because if one takes seriously that you cannot reasonably want misery, then this is a severe critique of many cultural traditions and practices. It places a severe limit on the scope of 128 Xxxxx Xxxxxx, ‘Philosophers are Back on the Job’, in: Xxxxx (ed.), Unsanctifying Human Life, p. 62. 129 Xxxxxxxx (2006: 350). 130 Xxxx Xxxx Xxxxxx, ‘...
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