Nocebo effects in medication Sample Clauses

Nocebo effects in medication. As well as explaining symptoms attributed to environmental exposures, some non-specific side effects experienced in relation to medications may arise also through a nocebo effect (Xxxxxx et al., 2002). It is widely acknowledged that drugs may generate adverse reactions, with studies showing that around 6.5% of patient admissions to hospitals are related to an adverse drug reaction (ADR) (Xxxxxx et al., 2009). An ADR is “a response to a drug which is noxious and unintended, and which occurs at doses normally used in man for the prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy of disease, or for the modifications of physiological function” (World Health Organisation, 1972). These ADRs can have serious implications, for example medication side effects can significantly reduce patient adherence to their medication (Ammassari et al., 2001) leading to reduced therapeutic benefit for the patient. Not only do ADRs put physical and psychological strain on patients, they also lead to financial costs for health services as they are a major cause of hospital admissions, and emergency department and outpatient care visits (Monguio, Xxxxx, & Xxxxxx, 2003). Pirmohamed et al. (2004) have estimated that ADR hospital admissions cost the National Health Service (NHS) £466 million annually. Non-adherence as a result of ADRs creates a further substantial cost, estimated to cost the NHS up to £196 million annually and up to £4 billion per year wasted on prescribed medication that is not taken as directed (National Institute For Health and Clinical Excellence, 2009). Less well-reported is that these ADRs are not always related to the physiological action of the medication (Faasse & Xxxxxx, 2013). For example, xx Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxx et al. (1994) noted that only 10.9% of reported ADRs to commonly prescribed drugs were clearly attributable to the medication, the remaining 89.1% were judged to be only probably or possibly related. Instead, many non-specific side effects that are attributed to medication are thought to occur due to a nocebo effect (Xxxxxx et al., 2002). A dramatic example of this can be found in the Eltroxin health scare in New Zealand. Eltroxin is a thyroid hormone replacement tablet primarily used to treat an underactive thyroid. After a change in formulation of this tablet in 2007, reports of side effects began to rise dramatically in the country (Faasse & Xxxxxx, 2013). The side effects included lethargy, joint pain and depression as well as symptoms not normally associated wit...