Review of the Literature. In this section some of the results on secret-key agreement by perfectly authen- ticated public discussion are reviewed. Xxxxxxx'x [21] famous result on perfect secrecy, stating that a cipher can achieve perfect secrecy only if the entropy of the secret key is at least as large as the entropy of the plaintext, can be considered as a special case (for 1-round protocols) of Theorem 1 below. Although Xxxxx'x wire-tap channel scenario [25] and Xxxxxxx and Kxxxxx'x generalization [8] thereof do not include a public channel between Xxxxx and Xxx, they should neverthe- less be mentioned here. In those scenarios, Xxxxx can send information over a so-called broadcast channel where Bob and Xxx can receive di erent outputs of the channel. Secret information transmission (and hence secret-key agreement) was shown to be possible if and only if Xxx's channel is noisier than Bob's chan- nel [8], an assumption that is generally unrealistic. In the scenario considered in quantum cryptography (see [2] and references therein), Xxxxx can send polarized light pulses of very low intensity to Bob over 3 H(S) = P s: PS (s)>0 PS (s) log 2 PS (s). See [6] for an introduction to the basic con- cepts of information theory.
Review of the Literature. The purpose of this review of the literature was to select and analyze research relevant to my research questions. After detailing search criteria and methods, the literature is divided into two major sections: theoretical research on authenticity and empirical research on authenticity in writing. The first section on theories does not center exclusively on writing because most of the theories of authenticity are general and pertain to education as a whole. The distinction between empirical and theoretical research is not a strict dichotomy, and when applicable, empirical work supporting a particular theoretical point is presented in the theoretical section. Within the theoretical section, five major themes are explored: real world relevance, constructivism, disciplined inquiry, the subjective nature of authenticity, and authenticity as a continuum. The second section on empirical research is divided into research that documents the effects of inauthentic writing instruction and research that documents the effects of authentic writing instruction. Search Criteria and Methods My search primarily focused on K-12 authentic English language arts education, and even more specifically, writing tasks. Within the search, “authentic” had to apply to the literacy task itself, for example, an authentic purpose for writing, not the authentic assessment or an authentic rubric for writing. A number of exceptions were made for research in college settings that could be applied to K-12 settings. In addition, because writing is interdisciplinary, research in science classrooms that was germane to this study was included. I conducted a number of database searches to find research that focused on authentic writing practices in K-12 classrooms using JSTOR, XXXX (Department of Education), and XXXX (EBSCOhost). Search terms included authentic, writing, secondary, observation, interview, ethnography, and “writing assessment”. These terms were used in various combinations and fields in an attempt to identify key pieces. A number of the search terms were descriptors in the XXXX system (including “ethnography” and “writing instruction”), and a number of new descriptors proved helpful such as “teacher role,” “middle grades,” and “classroom research.” I then conducted descriptor searches and limited my search by date. For example, in XXXX (U.S. Department of Education) I searched for “ethnography” and “writing instruction” from 2000- 2010, resulting in 30 search results. Of these 30 ...
Review of the Literature. The changing value system in Israel since the 1980s and its profound effect on the military ethos that has pervaded the country's socio-economic structure since its founding is currently the subject of intense public and political debate. While academics have been noting such a value shift for the past two decades, the reality of Israel’s reconstruction is something that has only recently been recognized by the broader Israeli public and the IDF especially, making the responses of the government and IDF to the perceived decline in militarism a very exciting and contemporary topic. When I first began to research the military ethos of Israeli society/culture, (sometimes referred to as the Israeli military society because of the organization of a large portion of Israeli society around the military’s needs), I was interested in the ramifications of perpetual conflict on the development of both Israeli society and the Israeli individual. This led me to focus on two main fields of research – the political science and sociological assessments of highly integrated civil-military relations in Israel and the sacrifices of the individual for the collective betterment of the country, especially long-term psychological sacrifices. While there is ample research available about civil- military relations and the military’s institutional modes of control and about the military ethos of prestige, there is less public dialogue about the psychological ramifications of military motivation on the individual, an under-researched topic that may have been considered too controversial and harder to measure within the broader field of Israel studies. The psychological model for examining the contribution of individuals to Israeli society is best exemplified by Xxxx Xxxxxxxx in her 1978 book Tin Soldiers on Jerusalem Beach: An Israeli Psychologist’s Account of the Inner Lives of Her Compatriots. The personal accounts of the habitual effects of war were poignant, stirring, and revealing. They presented an Israeli reality that had until the end of the twentieth century been purposefully avoided and considered taboo. Also contributing to the analysis of the Israeli individual was Xxxx Xxxxxx Xxxx’x 2005 work on the gender-relations and the excess demand for masculinity in early Israeli society. Israeli studies have often overlapped with Israeli military studies because of the pervasive culture of “a nation in arms.”3 Thus, extensive research was done by scholars like Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxxxx,...
Review of the Literature. Introduction It is important to place the present study’s rationale and aims within the context of a large body of existing literature pertaining to marriage, bereavement, and health. To support this goal, a literature review was undertaken using a variety of electronic sources available through the Xxxxxxxx Health Sciences Center Library at Emory University. The primary electronic tools employed included the PubMed database and the Thomson- Reuters Web of Science Citation Index database. Other search strategies included searching for selected terms through Google and Google Scholar, as well as reviewing articles listed in the bibliographies of articles already accessed. The review is organized into broad sections relating to the evidence for general effects of marriage on health, the impact of bereavement on mortality and other health outcomes, the importance of the context of death of the predeceased spouse, and the potential for new bereavement research approaches offered by health trajectory modeling. Marital Status and Mortality Results of numerous studies over the last century have suggested that marital status affects health and mortality, with married persons generally having a lower risk of dying within a given time period than those who are not married. Reviewing early research in this area from a historical context is beneficial, because the evolution of theories pertaining to marriage and health provides a valuable framework within which we will later consider how bereavement affects mortality. The first comprehensive study of marital status and mortality was published by the British statistician Xxxxxxx Xxxx in 1858 (40). Xxxx combined 1851 French census population counts with counts of all deaths recorded in France during 1853 to compute one-year age-specific mortality risk among married, never-married, and widowed persons. For both men and women across most age groups examined, the married had lower age-adjusted risks than the never-married or widowed groups. Xxxx’x findings led him to conclude that “Marriage is a healthy estate. The single individual is more likely to be wrecked on his voyage than the lives joined together in matrimony” (40). Yet Xxxx also provided a thoughtful discussion on a number of diverse factors that may have contributed to his findings, including potential selection effects and economic considerations. Other early studies, such as those reported by March in 1912 (41) and Bliss in 1915 (42), found patterns of mortali...
Review of the Literature. This study sought to investigate the Latino and Hispanic communities’ response to a targeted cancer genetic screening approach in the state of Georgia, as well as the perceived barriers and facilitators to genetic testing awareness and access. The purpose of chapter two is to review literature relevant to this thesis. This chapter begins with a robust review of literature surrounding risk of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (HBOC) among the Latino and Hispanic community, current Latino and Hispanic engagement with genetic cancer screening and disparities seen in HBOC prevention, as well as current strategies used to promote health equity in this field.
Review of the Literature. The Challenges of Immigrant Youth The well-being and productivity of immigrant youth have become one of the most important domestic issues of our times as a result of mass migration and resettlement in the Western Hemisphere. In the United States, immigrant youth account for one-fourth of the of the nation’s 75 million youth (USDA, 2017). Of these, estimates sustain that around eleven million are unauthorized immigrants. Currently, politicians are debating how to best address the challenges presented by their legal status (Silver, 2018). Meanwhile, immigrant youth are confronted by a slew of socioeconomic challenges as they try to adapt to their host country. These challenges vary by age and the length of time the individual has resided in the United States. For example, immigrant youth who are recent arrivals are more likely to live in low-income households with little to no multigenerational wealth (Xxxxxx et al., 2012). They are also more likely to experience parental poverty as their parents are more likely to have a low level of education, and limited employment opportunities within the host country (Xxxxxx et al., 2012). In addition to poverty, language barriers and foreign social and cultural practices also contribute toward their stigmatization and isolation from mainstream youth cultures (Xxxxxx 1999). In Realizing the Potential of Immigrant Youth, Xxxxxx et al further provide extensive research on immigrant youth, focusing on research regarding success within the host country. Through this work, the authors stress the importance of adequate legislative protections for this vulnerable population and delineate the implications for policy and interventions that will benefit host societies as well as immigrant youth. In order to create effective policies at all governmental levels, it is important to recognize the unique socioeconomic challenges that documented and undocumented immigrant youth face in the United States. Through her ethnographic field work, Xxxxxx Xxxxxx sheds light on the currents of exclusion and incorporation that characterize the lives of immigrant youth. The author states that contradictory policies at the national, state, and local levels interact to create a complex environment which the youth must navigate (Silver, 2018). “From heritage- based school programs to state-wide bans on attending community college;” she details, outlining the different political attitudes toward this population, “from the failure of the DREAM Act to...
Review of the Literature. Xxx Arbor: National Center for Research to Improve Post- secondary Teaching and Learning, U of Michigan, 1986. Xxxxxx-Xxxxx, Xxxxxx. “Sharing Power with Students: The Critical Language Class- room.” Radical Pedagogy. 7.2 (2005). <xxxx://xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.xxxxx.xxx/ content/issue7_2/xxxxxx.html>. Xxxxxx, X., X. X. Xxxx, and X. X. Xxxxxxx. Reader Calibration and Its Potential Role in Equating for the Test of Writ- ten English. TOEFL Research Report 52. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1996. X’Xxxxx, Xxxxxx X. “It’s Broken—Fix it!” Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. Ed. Xxxxxxx Xxxxxx. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 3–13. Xxxxxxx, Xxxxx X. “Contract Grades: An Agreement between Students and Their Teachers.” Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. Ed. Xxxxxxx Xxxxxx. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. 285–90. Xxxxxxx, Xxxxxx. Foreword. Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Mo- dernity. By Xxxxxx Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxx. Trans. Xxxxxxxxxxx X. Xxxxxxxxx and Xxxxxx X. Xxxxx. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1995. xv. Xxxx, Xxx. When Students Have Power: Nego- tiating Authority in a Critical Pedagogy. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996. Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxx. Alternatives to Grading Student Writing. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1997. Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxx X. “Understanding Prob- lems in Critical Classrooms.” College Composition and Communication 57.1 (September 2005): 114–41. Xxx, Xxxxxxx, and Xxxxxxxxxxx X. Xxxxxx, eds. The Theory and Practice of Grading Writing: Problems and Possibilities. State U of New York P, 1998. 267 C C C 6 1 : 2 / d e C e m b e r 2 0 0 9 Xxxx Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxx Xxxxxxxxxxx is associate professor of English at the University of North Caro- lina at Chapel Hill. She has served as director of the Writing Program and remains an active administrator, especially in developing the WID program. She teaches and publishes in the areas of writing pedagogy, genre theory, and autobiography studies. Her article “Personal Genres, Public Voices” appeared in College Composi- tion and Communication (2008). She is the author of Teaching Selves (2001) and is currently at work on a book connecting theories of genre and agency with the practice of autobiography. Xxxxx Xxxxx Xxxxx Xxxxx is professor of English emeritus at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. In 2006 he published “The Music of Form: Rethinking Organization in Writing” in College Composition and Communication. He ...
Review of the Literature. The current literature indicates the great need for understanding and improving the varied areas of child development, particularly for overburdened and additionally vulnerable populations. The Legacy program focuses on four areas of child development: cognitive, language, socioemotional, and behavioral outcomes. Cognitive outcomes refer to the processes utilized by young children related to thinking, memory, language, and reasoning; outcomes related to language include speaking, listening, understanding, and recognizing and using the names of people and objects (Neaum, 2010). Socioemotional outcomes reference how young children understand, express, and manage emotions in themselves and others, as well as how to create positive and fulfilling relationships with others (Cohen, Onunaku, Xxxxxxxx, & Xxxxx, 2005). Finally, behavioral outcomes refer to the activity and attention levels of young children, and their capacity to regulate behavior (Saavedra, Fraser, & Iklé, 2009).
Review of the Literature. Introduction Ever since the use of a vaccine against small pox by Xxxxxx Xxxxxx in 1796, vaccines have become indispensable to the eradication of disease. Major advances have been made not only in the development but also in utilization of vaccines to save lives. Figure 2.1 highlights milestones in vaccine development in the 20th and 21st century. Currently more than 70 vaccines have been licensed for use and in modern day medicine vaccination provides an important, cost- effective strategy to protect against many infectious illnesses (Nabel, 2013).
Review of the Literature. Exclusive Breastfeeding The universal implementation of exclusive breastfeeding or only feeding an infant breast milk for the first six months of their life, could prevent an estimated 823,000 annual deaths in children under five years in LMICs (Victora et al., 2016). In addition to decreasing malnutrition rates, exclusive breastfeeding leads to a 26% reduction in the odds of being overweight or obese in adulthood (WHO, 2013; Victora et al., 2016). Implementing this practice also leads to a 68% reduction in malocclusions, the imperfect positioning of teeth (Victora et al, 2016). Breastfeeding benefits are not exclusive to children: the meta-analysis of 22 systematic reviews by Victora et al., (2016) indicates that breastfeeding can improve birth spacing and protect mothers against ovarian and breast cancer. Though these benefits are widely recognized, one of the main breastfeeding challenges in LMICs is the implementation of exclusive breastfeeding practices (Xxxxxxxx & Xxxxxx, 2010; Victora et al., 2016). A different systematic review under the Lancet Breastfeeding Series, identifies determinants of breastfeeding (Xxxxxxx et al., 2016). Determinants include, hospital practices, influence from family members, particularly, their attitudes and preferences. For example, if a partner does not want his wife breastfeeding in public, a mother is less likely to breastfeed. In this study work is cited as the main reason for early weaning or not breastfeeding at all. At the individual level, subjective norms and benefits are mentioned as the strongest predictors of intention to breastfeed. Factors like inadequate support and anticipated breastfeeding difficulties tend to be barriers to breastfeeding across the literature. Introduction of milk substitutes is correlated with mother’s perceived insufficient milk and the mother feeling as if her child is not full. This review also shows that health systems, the formula industry, and policies directly affect a women’s ability to breastfeed. National Statistics Nicaragua’s top health priorities per the Ministry of Health, include infant mortality, chronic infant malnutrition, and high prevalence of acute respiratory illnesses (MINSA, 2014). The capital, Managua, is directly impacted by these high infant mortality rates, with 29 deaths per 1,000 live births (Xxxxxxxx et al., 2011). Mortality rates and undernutrition are associated with suboptimal breastfeeding practices, but it is nationally recognized that general br...
