Limitations and Future Directions. The cross-sectional nature of this study limits the conclusions that can be drawn. As discussed above, we cannot conclude that abuse and RScs are causally related, nor can we assume the direction of this effect. Additionally, a cross-sectional design cannot capture the dynamic, interactive nature of mutual influences in the parent-child relationship. While a longitudinal design would not definitively demonstrate a causal association, it may shed more light on the temporal dynamics of parent-child alignment and abuse. Alternatively, an experimental design with an intervention aiming to improve interactional alignment that examines intervention effects on both abuse and RScs could provide insights into the causal role of interactional alignment. Future research may include brain activity measures during interaction using hyperscanning techniques in which the parent and the child are scanned at the same time (Xxxxxx et al., 2019; Xxxxxxxx & Xxxxxxx, 2014; Xxxxxx et al., 2014). Currently, this is mostly done using more portable technologies such as EEG and fNIRS which allow two individuals to be assessed during a face-to-face interaction (e.g., Xxxxxx et al., 2017; Xxxxxxxx et al., 2017; Xxxxxx et al., 2021; Xxxxxx et al., 2018). Over time, more facilities will become available with possibilities to scan two individuals in separate MRI scanners allowing for real-time interaction (for overviews see Xxxxxxxxxx et al., 2020; Xxxxxxxx, 2021; Xxxxxx et al., 2012).
Limitations and Future Directions. Although modest, the results of this study provide some suggestion that fetal response variables, measured differently and in a more distressed population, may be useful in predicting birth outcomes. However, several methodological limitations should be highlighted. Primarily, our small sample size limited power. A larger sample may be required to identify robust effects of fetal responsivity on post-natal outcomes. Moreover, recruiting from multiple hospitals to obtain a sample that is more diverse and representative of pregnant women may be necessary. It may also be the case that the association between maternal distress, fetal responses, and post- natal outcomes varies as a function of demographic characteristics, as has been reported by other researchers (Hilmert et al., 2008). A more diverse sample allows for the exploration of several other factors that may increase or decrease the association between maternal distress, fetal responses, and post-natal outcomes. The present study sample was relatively psychologically healthy, compared to those typically in the literature, experiencing mild (versus moderate or severe) levels of depression, stress and anxiety. Studies with more diverse samples using a more potent stress stimulus such as labor distress and employing measures of subjective distress might be more useful. Although this study employed a longitudinal design, due to attrition not all women participated in both assessments. This missing data not only decreased power but may have reduced the representativeness of the remaining sample. Future studies with the same longitudinal nature should consider implementing appropriate strategies to decrease attrition rate. For example, emails and phone calls before each planned assessment time could be arranged to remind the participants. Additionally, this study was a risk study and only explored factors that contributed to adverse post-natal outcomes. Another benefit to having a more representative sample is the ability to explore other key variables that may serve as protective factors, such as coping and social support. Perhaps a more informative exploration would be one in which the full spectrum of, as opposed to only adverse outcomes, is explored. Although many studies of prenatal stress are conducted to inform the larger goal of preventing clinically-relevant adverse outcomes, it is also important to determine how prenatal stress operates in pregnancies that result in full-term or normal weight infa...
Limitations and Future Directions. As any research not using randomized designs this study cannot provide conclusive causal evidence. However we were able to select experimental schools in which placement in the treatment condition was determined externally and not by participants – that is, the students, parents, teachers or administrators – within the schools. As the enriched school library was an exogenous variable and schools were apart from that comparable in language education findings may, despite the quasi- experimental design, be taken as an indicator for the causal impact of an enriched school library (Xxxxxxx & Xxxxxxx, 2011). Another limitation may be that a different procedure was followed in assessing reading motivation and reading frequency: In the experimental condition students filled in an online questionnaire at home while students in the control condition completed a printed version at school under supervision of the researchers. However, there is strong evidence that findings are comparable. First of all, the time it took students to fill in the online questionnaire at home was similar to the time it took students to fill in the questionnaires in the classroom. On average students spent 14.2 minutes (SD = 8.5 minutes) to fill in the reading motivation questionnaire and Title Recognition List at home which is about the same time as it took students in the control condition. Secondly, we did not find any relation between the time it took to fill in the Title Recognition Test and their score (r = .02, p = .79) as might be expected when students access external information (for example the internet) to complete the list. An important question that remains relates to which elements of an enriched school library cause effects on students’ reading proficiency. Is it the collection itself and its appeal to students or do effects depend on the activities that are elicited by an enriched school library? Although we tried to collect data about the impact of the enriched school library on the practices within schools we observed that the impact of the enriched library on activities in the school varies highly depending on preferences of the staff. We did, for instance, not find an overall effect of the enriched library on minutes per week to be spent on free reading. There were schools with enriched libraries in which students spent three hours per week reading self- selected books while in other schools with enriched libraries less than half an hour per week was reserved for the s...
Limitations and Future Directions. One limitation of the present study was the small sample size. All analyses were run in the overall sample and the post hoc power analysis for the Model 2.3 indicated strong association. But the sample size, particularly within the LR group is low. Due to this, I was unable to examine the multi-group models, which would inform us whether such associations are consistent for both HR and the LR groups. Second, the exploratory mediation analyses should be interpreted with caution since some of the mediator and outcome variables (anxiety and ASD) were measured cross-sectionally. Xxxxxxx, Xxxx, and Xxxxxxxx (2011) stressed that a cross-sectional investigation of mediation might lead to substantial bias. A third limitation arises due to relying on parent-reported data, which may increase the risk of informant bias. Having an older child with an ASD diagnosis might affect the parental judgement for the younger child. Moreover, parental anxiety problems have been found to mediates the relationship between temperament and anxiety problems (Xxxxxxxxx et al., 2010). This might raise attributional bias and future research should take into account the possible effects of parental psychopathology on childhood anxiety problems. Fourth, employing a single method approach may increase the possibility of yielding results that are specific to a single method or due to shared method variance between predictors and outcome. However, the results were specific to BI and not sadness (extracted from the same questionnaire) mitigates this possibility. Further research should employ a multi-method approach encompassing both parent report and observational measurements to boost ecological validity.
Limitations and Future Directions. One limitation of the current study is that there might be an inherent difference in the funniness of the jokes themselves (success driven vs. bad driving). The results do not discern whether a difference in funniness has to do with the valence itself. Specially, the participants in this study may found jokes about Asian drivers are inherently funnier than jokes about Asian Americans being success driven. In fact, the success-driven stereotype may pose a higher level of identity threat to the participants than does Asians being bad drivers.Therefore, future research efforts should be devoted to collecting/developing more Asian-stereotype jokes with different levels of funniness and content valence. The second limitation of this study is its lack of measure for stereotype change. Although the statistical inferences were made based on within-subjects variations. More convincing causal claims can be made by using some forms of a longitudinal design. In this way, stereotype agreement can be measured repeatedly with longer temporal lags in between. As such, inferences about within-individual stereotype agreement changes can be made. In addition, the current study used written scripts for internal validity purpose. Future studies need to incorporate manipulations with a higher level of external validity, such as video recordings of standup comedians performing stereotype jokes. In a study of standup comedy, Xxxxxxxx and Xxxxx (2011) suggested that the dynamic display of humorous messages is vital to the observation of the rewarding center activation as it resembles a naturalistic social interaction, compared to a static cartoon or written jokes. Xxxxxxxx and Xxxxx’x experiment used 32 recorded 24s routines performed by different comedians. Future research can adopt a similar design to simulate a more naturalistic standup environment. The third future direction is to include Asian Americans participants. The findings of the current study are specific to Caucasian Americans. It will be theoretically meaningful to test the current study findings with samples from Asian Americans. Xxxxx and Xxxxxxx (2016) study with African American audience have shown that Black audience evaluation criteria for stereotype humor are different than White audience. It will be meaningful to see if Asian Americans also share similar evaluation criteria as African Americans, given both groups have been historically negatively stereotyped and now being positively stereotyped. In addition,...
Limitations and Future Directions. An extensive list of search terms was used along with subject headings that were appropriate to each database and a number of different databases were searched. However, it is possible that studies have been missed and that more data is available on this question. Studies may also have been published since the search was conducted in July 2015. It is noticeable that only the USA and England are represented in the included studies and it is possible that studies from non-English speaking countries have not been captured. In order to investigate this, a recent textbook on international prison psychiatry was reviewed and no interventions that would have been eligible were cited in chapters on a wide range of countries even though transition to the community was often mentioned (Xxxxxx, Volm, & Xxxxxxxx, 2013). Meta analytic methods allow a stronger comparison of studies included in a systematic review but statistical pooling of results was not possible due to the heterogeneity of the methods and interventions of included studies. The results of this systematic review have important implications for future research and highlight areas for consideration when designing studies aimed at transition from prison to the community. More randomised controlled trials are needed with improved reporting of interventions and statistical data. Fidelity ratings are desirable and both health and offending outcomes are important in this period and efforts should be made to record both. Trials in a range of countries are also necessary as criminal justice systems have large differences and the interaction between prison and health systems also varies.
