Depression. A meta-analysis of emotion responses which included facial expressions has been undertaken in depression by Xxxxxx et al (2008). The meta-analysis included seven studies which measured facial expressivity using either EMG or observational coding. It showed that people with major depressive disorder demonstrate reduced emotional reactivity to both positively and negatively valenced stimuli, with the reduction larger for positive stimuli (d=.53) than for negative stimuli (d=.25). Since the meta-analysis by Xxxxxx et al (2008), two further studies investigating facial expressivity in depression have been published and are described below.
Depression. Depression is often present in patients with anxiety, yet it may also be a side effect of sedatives themselves. Notify the doctor if you start feeling depressed, very sad, hopeless, or suicidal.
Depression. Depression may occur, especially with misuse and abrupt withdrawal. Notify the doctor if you start feeling depressed, very sad, hopeless, or suicidal.
Depression. The level of depression symptomatology experienced during the past week of the clinical sample was assessed with the Dutch version of Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale (CES-D) (Bouma, Ranchor, Sanderman, & van Sonderen, 1995; Radloff, 1977) before the MI and at 14 months after the completion of the course. In this sample Crohnbach’s alpha (α) was .90. Autobiographical memory test – AMT This test has been developed by Williams and Broadbent (1986) to measure memory specificity, and has later been modified by McNally and colleagues (McNally et al., 1995). Two versions were used, each with five negative and five positive cue words. In version 1, the cue words were: friendly (+), guilty (-), honest (+), impolite (-), helpful (+), jealous (-), clever (+), selfish (-), humorous (+), and hostile (-), and in version 2: happy (+), clumsy (-), loyal (+), mean (-), tolerant (+), cowardly (-), disciplined (+), distrusting (-), kind (+), and lazy (-). Participants were asked to recall an event at which they had shown the trait displayed on a flashcard and simultaneously read aloud by the experimenter. The response was considered a specific memory if it referred to a particular event lasting not longer than a day. Three practice items were administered and direct feedback was given about the correctness of the response. Participants were allowed 60s to come up with a memory; expiration was scored as no memory. The specificity was checked by asking details such as dates, seasons, time of the day, dress etc. The number of specific answers formed the response variable AMT specific. All interviews were recorded on audiotape and scored by the first author as well as by trained student psychologists. The level of agreement was good (kappa .89; p <.001). For disagreements, a third rater broke the tie without knowledge of the previous ratings. The change in autobiographical memory specificity (∆AMT) was defined as baseline AMT score minus AMT score after the MI. Visual analogue mood scale (VAMS) VAMS for mood are a quick and simple means for measuring mood state (Killgore, 1999) with good reliability and validity (Ahearn, 1997). Participants were repeatedly asked during the experiment to rate their mood on VAMS measuring 100 mm by crossing the line ranging from ‘not at all gloomy’ (zero) to ‘very gloomy’ (100 mm). The scales were scored measuring the length (in mm) from ‘zero’ to this mark. The change in mood (∆mood) was defined as the baseline VAMS minus VAMS a...
Depression. The sensitivity of the GMS/AGECAT stage 1 diagnosis of depression for the MADRS- defined depression case criterion was close to 90% in each of the three main regions (Table 4). This figure dropped to around 70–80% in AGECAT stage 2, mainly because the depressive symptoms had been trumped by the organicity (dementia) ratings in the hierarchical diagnosis. Because dementia was an exclusion criterion for selection into the depression group, this suggested misclassification by the stage 2 AGECAT algorithm. The high levels of apparent comorbidity in the dementia case groups are noteworthy, as is the apparent high proportion of those with depression in the high- and low-education control groups in Latin America and the Caribbean compared with Indian and Chinese centres. Case-level depression was neither screened for nor excluded from the high- and low- education or dementia groups, so we could not estimate the specificity of the AGECAT depression diagnosis. The distribution of the EURO–D scale, within diagnostic groups, was similar across the three main regions (Table 4). In each region the mean scores were much higher in the depression group than in the dementia or high- and low-education con- trol groups. Internal consistency (Cronba- ch’s a) was universally satisfactory. For India it was 0.91 (range for centres: 0.87– 0.95), for Latin America and the Caribbean it was 0.83 (range for centres: 0.64–0.91) and for China and south-east Asia (both centres) it was 0.88. The other two regions were represented by only one centre each – Anambra in Africa (a¼0.93) and Moscow in Russia (a¼0.86). Principal component analysis was attempted for three regions: India; China and south-east Asia; and Latin America and the Caribbean. Two factor solutions were applied in each region following inspection of scree plots. Similar factors were extracted for India and for Latin America and the Caribbean (see Table 5), conforming to the affective suffer- ing (depression, suicidality, tearfulness) and motivation (enjoyment, interest) factors previously reported for EURO–D (Xxxxxx et al, 1999). In the Chinese centres all of these items loaded on a single factor, whereas the second factor was characterised by guilt and pessimism.
Depression. There is ample evidence from our data for the core validity of the AGECAT depres- sion algorithm, at least with respect to its sensitivity to the relatively severe form of depression implied by our independent- clinician inclusion criterion of a MADRS score of 18 or over. It is possible that applying the diagnostic hierarchy in stage 2 may lead to misclassification of de- pression as dementia. Alternatively, given the typically high rates of dementia inci- dence in cases clinically diagnosed as depressive pseudodementia, ‘false positives’ may reflect an incipient dementia process that was not apparent to the independent LAC, Latin America and the Caribbean. clinician recruiting the depression cases.
Depression. Feeling low or sad is a common feeling for children and adults, and a normal reaction to experiences that are stressful or upsetting. When these feelings dominate and interfere with a person’s life, it can become an illness. Depression can significantly affect a child’s ability to develop, to learn or to maintain and sustain friendships. Clinicians making a diagnosis of depression will generally use the categories major depressive disorder (MDD – where the person will show a number of depressive symptoms to the extent that they impair work, social or personal functioning) or dysthymic disorder (DD – less severe than MDD, but characterised by a daily depressed mood for at least two years). Hyperkinetic Disorders (e.g. disturbance of activity and attention) Although many children are inattentive, easily distracted or impulsive, in some children these behaviours are exaggerated and persistent, compared with other children of a similar age and stage of development. When these behaviours interfere with a child’s family and social functioning and with progress at school, they become a matter for professional concern. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a diagnosis used by clinicians. It involves three characteristic types of behaviour – inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. Whereas some children show signs of all three types of behaviour (this is called ‘combined type’ ADHD), other children diagnosed show signs only of inattention or hyperactivity/impulsiveness. Hyperkinetic disorder is another diagnosis used by clinicians. It is a more restrictive diagnosis but is broadly like severe combined type ADHD, in that signs of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsiveness must all be present. These core symptoms must also have been present before the age of seven and must be evident in two or more settings. Attachment disorders Attachment is the affectionate bond children have with special people in their lives that lead them to feel pleasure when they interact with them and be comforted by their nearness during times of stress. Researchers generally agree that there are four main factors that influence attachment security: opportunity to establish a close relationship with a primary caregiver; the quality of caregiving; the child’s characteristics; and the family context. Secure attachment is an important protective factor for mental health later in childhood, while attachment insecurity is widely recognised as a risk factor for the development of...
Depression. A dull or drab mood, which includes feelings of sadness, melancholy, and lowered energy and self-regard. Depression was measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES- D) Scale (Xxxx, Xxxxxx, & Xxxxxxxx, 1999).
Depression. Depression was determined using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) short scale (Xxxxxx & Xxxxx, 1997). The scale consists of eight- statements about feelings that the participant may have experienced over the last week. Sample items included “My sleep was restless” and “I had crying spells”. Responses were measured on a 4-point scale of the frequency of experiencing symptoms, where 1 was “less than 1 day”, 2 was “1-2 days”, 3 was “3-4 days” and 4 was “5-7 days”. Possible scores ranged from 8-32 with higher scores indicating the presence of more depressive symptoms. Cronbach alpha was 0.92.
Depression. The Centers for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Revised version (CESD) was used to assess depressive symptoms in this study. The CESD is a 20-item validated survey of clinically significant distress as a marker for clinical depression (alpha=0.91) (Xxx Xxx & Xxxxxxxxxx, 2011). The participants would be asked to characterize their frequency of depressive symptoms using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (rarely or none of the time) to 3 (most or all of the time). And a dichotomous depression variable was created using a CESD-R score of ≥ 16, which suggests clinically relevant depressive symptomology(Xxxxxx et al., 2011).
