Policy Environment. The framework employed in this dissertation suggests that the policy environment under the unified military period should be only moderately particularistic. That is, it should be evident that those with centralized power limit the use of state policies for personal benefit because of external pressures. As indicated in previous chapters, I differentiate between micro and macroeconomic policies. Overall, this period plays out as predicted, with a policy environment that was relatively stable and featured broadly-targeted policies in some areas but was prone to particularism in others. Macroeconomic Policy Macroeconomic policy was both stable and decided by military-approved technocrats that by and large placed economy-wide stability and growth over the interests of any particular firms, families, or cronies. Fiscal and monetary policies were geared towards maintaining a stable exchange rate and avoiding inflation (Muscat, 1994). The policy adjustments and fluctuations that occurred over this period were relatively predictable responses to changing external and internal conditions. For example, the government responded to budgetary and current-account deficits in the late 1960s with mild demand-restraint measures, relying on substantial foreign reserves as a cushion (Muscat, 1994). Muscatt notes, “Implicit in this combination of balancing trends and limitations of policy changes to the cautious and incremental is a very important point easily overlooked: with a sound basic framework in place, incrementalism ensured that the government also avoided major mistakes” (Muscat, 1994: 103). The Sarit and Xxxxxx regimes were forced to balance between maximizing par- ticularistic benefits and ensuring overall economic stability. This balancing act was played out in the relationship between the military leadership and Dr. Puey, the senior technocrat. Xx. Xxxx’x task was to achieve the policy goals set forth by the military: stability and growth. But the top brass also sought to enrich themselves and their political supporters in the military. Xxxxx and Xxxxxx, not being trained in economics, had to rely on conservative technocrats like Dr. Puey to determine how many particularistic policies they could pursue before it endangered overall eco- nomic stability and growth. But because conservative technocrats prefer almost no particularistic policies, the Junta required some way to determine when a recommen- dation made by the technocrat is absolutely critical to overall...
Policy Environment. My framework distinguishes between macroeconomic policy and sectoral policy are- nas. In practice, the boundary lines between macro and sectoral policies may not com- pletely distinct. Macroeconomic policy areas, including fiscal, monetary, exchange- rate, and trade policies, can be undermined or circumvented by sectoral policies such as tariff exemptions and export subsidies. For each type of policy environment, I of external threat, particularly if used in conjunction with the Correlates of War project’s data on military capabilities (Singer, 1988). evaluate the degree of volatility and the degree of particularism. In the work that has posited a link between the number of veto players and the VoC, the volatility of the policy environment has been of chief concern. Specifically, the degree to which economic actors fear radical shifts in economic policy. But there is an important difference between a government changing policy in a consistent manner in response to an external event and a government changing policy in a haphazard manner for domestic political reasons. If, for example, an external shock occurs that would warrant some sort of stimulus according to orthodox macroeconomic theory, a mechanical evaluation of changes in policy on the ground may lead one to characterize as volatile, a policy environment in which investors might not actually fear radical policy change. Thus, in coding the volatility of the policy environment, I try to be as clear and explicit as possible in indicating when a given policy change might be a predictable response to external circumstances and not evidence of volatility. I make this evaluation based on secondary analyses of the global economic circumstances of the time and primary and secondary reports on subjective perceptions regarding policy volatility.14 I argue that a particularistic policy environment incentivizes economic actors to engage in competition for political access that narrows the range of economic gov- ernance institutions they can establish. In a broad sense, particularistic economic policies are those that benefit specific groups at the expense of overall economic wel- fare. Unfortunately, not all economic policy changes involve pareto-improvements. Even if a policy change improves the economy as a whole, there are usually some who 14This level of nuance, while critical, raises the danger of ad hoc rationalizations. In combating this possibility, I make as transparent and strong a case as I can and le...
Policy Environment. Macroeconomic Policy Macroeconomic policy under Prem was both predictable and decided by Prem-approved technocrats that by and large placed economy-wide stability and growth over the in- terests of any particular firms, families, or cronies. Fiscal policy was consistently conservative and predictable in this period, with the government using hard bud- get constraints to limit particularism. The government prescribed austerity for the economic ills coming into the decade and followed through on them. It sought an increased role for the private sector to drive growth and reduced the role of state owned enterprises (Xxxxx & Laothamatas, 1994; Xxxxxx, 1989). Monetary and exchange rate policies, decided by the MoF, the BoT, and the NESDB were geared towards maintaining a stable exchange rate and avoiding in- flation (Rock, 1994). The policy adjustments and fluctuations that occurred over this period were relatively predictable orthodox responses to changing external and internal conditions. The most substantial macroeconomic policy change in the semi-democratic period was the 1984 un-pegging of the Baht to the Dollar. The move took place in the face of Thailand’s worsening trade and balance of payments positions and rapidly dwindling reserves (Vichit-Vadakan, 1985). The government had also undertaken two smaller devaluations earlier in the 1980s (Xxxxx & Laothamatas, 1994). As such, the widespread expectation that the government would devalue caused a reduction of foreign borrowing, the delay of foreign investments, an increase in capital outflow, and increased imports. Though this expectation was communicated by rumor rather than official channels, it was widespread and based on assessments of earlier policies and the government’s overall position such that when the change occurred, it was not a shock.
Policy Environment. The Parties acknowledge the importance of a policy environment that facilitates the achievement of expected results of the Program. The Grantee therefore pledges to provide, and cause District Administrations to provide, a policy environment that facilitates the achievement of expected results of the Program.
Policy Environment. WHO serves as the global leader in recommending vaccine policy. Most countries look to WHO for advice on adoption and usage of its pre-‐qualified vaccines. The Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) on immunization is the main advisory body that makes recommendations on both adult and child vaccine use worldwide. After consideration by the WHO Director-‐General, SAGE recommendations eventually become WHO official policy (198). Of the 6 currently available vaccines outlined above, WHO-‐SAGE has recommended just 2 for routine use in pregnancy. • Influenza -‐ There is a strong recommendation to use the IIV vaccine anytime in pregnancy. WHO acknowledges that immunization in pregnancy protects both mother and neonate from disease and complications. Pregnant women are also deemed the highest priority group for the vaccine (66). • Tdap/ TT – Tetanus immunization is strongly recommend in pregnancy. Pregnant women and non-‐pregnant women of childbearing age are encouraged to complete the immunization series. However, pertussis is currently not recommended in pregnancy to protect the newborn due to insufficient evidence on its effectiveness. The tetanus guidance does note that any tetanus-‐containing vaccine can be used to fulfill the tetanus recommendations (52, 62). • Hepatitis B – The guidance notes that pregnancy and lactation are not contraindications for the vaccine. However, there is no strong recommendation for routine HepB use in pregnancy (9). • H. influenzae type b – There is no recommendation for routine use of H. influenzae type b in pregnancy, although there is recognition of the protective effects of passively-‐acquired antibodies during the first two months of life (89). • Pneumococcal – The vaccine is currently not recommended for routine use in pregnancy to protect the newborn due to insufficient evidence (103). • Meningococcal – Although it is noted that meningococcal vaccine is considered safe to use in pregnant women, there is no express recommendation for its use to protect the newborn (114).
Policy Environment. The Washington State Growth Management Act (GMA) is a series of regulations for cities and counties to follow when designing comprehensive plans for population growth. The GMA, which was enacted in 1990, outlines 14 goals with respect to city planning and environmental protection.1 Because Spokane is a “fully planning” county, it is required to follow the development plans outlined in the GMA.2 A key goal of the GMA is to increase “middle housing” in Washington by adding 1 million new homes by 2044. Middle housing is defined as “buildings that are compatible in scale, form, and character with single-family houses and contain two or more attached, stacked, or clustered homes including duplexes, triplexes, fourplexes, fiveplexes, sixplexes, townhouses, stacked flats, courtyard apartments, and cottage housing”.3 This type of housing should focus on areas that were primarily designated for detached single-family homes. The goal of increasing middle housing is to add housing options at various income levels. The increase in housing “intensity” should be focused in areas that are a walkable distance from jobs and services or are near public transport. In 2021, the City of Spokane adopted a Housing Action Plan (HAP).4 The HAP was developed to address Spokane’s current issue of low vacancies and increasing housing prices. The goals included in the plan are (1) increasing the housing supply for all income levels, (2) preserving housing affordability and quality, (3) increasing access to housing and homeownership, and
