Theoretical Background Sample Clauses

Theoretical Background. In the literature of language development, some analyses have been put forward to account for the phenomenon known as object clitic omission (see

Theoretical Background. The effects of demographic faultlines on group processes and performance are often explained using the theories of similarity-attraction, social identity, and social categorization. The similarity-attraction paradigm posits that group members are attracted to similar others (Xxxxx, 1971), such that members who share a demographic characteristic will be likely to form a subgroup on the basis of the mutual similarity. Social categorization theory argues that the categories that people base their identities on (and thus admire in similar others) proscribe their behavior. When social identities are salient, people will strive to enhance themselves by making their in-group appear superior to the out-group (Xxxxxx & Xxxxxx, 1986; Turner, 1987). To accomplish this, members may exhibit pride and loyalty to their in-group and derogatory and prejudiced attitudes and behavior toward the out-group (Xxxxxxx & Xxxxxx, 1989). These processes over time may lead to a breakdown in communication between subgroups (e.g., Lau & Xxxxxxxxx, 2005) and the eventual polarization of the different subgroups from each other (c.f. Lau & Xxxxxxxxx, 1998). We propose that faultline placement (whether the faultline creates a solo-split or coalitional split) determines the degree to which these social psychological mechanisms impact team processes and outcomes. While past research has explored whether processes such as these lead faultlines to be associated with higher levels of conflict (e.g., Xxx & Xxxxxxxxx, 2005; Xx & Xxxxxxxx, 0000; Xxxxxx et al., 2006; Xxxxxxxx et al., 2003), research has yet to investigate how the effects of faultlines might vary depending on the placement of the faultline in the group – whether the faultline divides two subgroups from each other or whether the faultline separates a single member from a larger subgroup. In this chapter, we specifically focus on the group process of conflict as explaining the effects of faultline placement on team and individual performance. Because our study examines team composition, conflict is a particularly relevant construct, as past theory and research has often suggested that these two concepts - team composition and conflict - are closely related (e.g., Xxxx, Xxxxxxxxxx, & Xxxxx, 1999; Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxxxxx, & Xxx, 1999). Additionally, conflict has been found to be a major contributor to the effects of group processes on outcomes such as performance or satisfaction (e.g., Xxxxxx, 1996; Xx Xxxx & Xxxxxxxx, 0000; Xxxx, 1995; 1997...

Theoretical Background. The value and innovation chain of genetic resources 16

Theoretical Background. A company under its own initiative identifies the need to enter into an alliance, then, identifies the best partner available and finally chooses a contract that is appropriate to achieve formalize the alliance. Instead, Xxxxxx (1993) found that the vast majority of new partnership opportunities were presented to firms through joint strategic allies already obtained. Thus, organizations focused on their existing relationships first searched for possible new partners or searched references to potential allies for allied partners. The formation ofjoint venturestoKogut(1988) consists of three main reasonswhichcan also be usedfor all typesof strategic alliances: A. Transaction costs ofreducednumberofnegotiations. B. Strategic behaviorthatleads firmstoimproveits competitive positionormarket power, and C. The pursuit oforganizational cultureor to learnthe resultswhen one or bothpartnersneedto acquirea significantknowledge of the otherpartner. Whilepartnershipscanbe seen asa different way ofgovernancethan thoseof marketsand hierarchies, there is a considerable difference inthe formal structureof the partnershipsthemselves.The wide varietyof organizational structuresimplies that firmsfacea set ofoptions to achievestructure theiralliances(Xxxxxx, 1990). The differentpathsof evolution thatfollow thepartnerships canhave important consequenceson their performance.Therefore,understanding the evolutionof alliancesprovidescritical insightson howthese linkscan be managedin the best way. Firms canmake significant changesthat may changethe original design ofanypart of the allianceonce it isalready done(Xxxxxxxx, 1986). Toassess the performanceof alliances, there have been a number ofstudies, butthey have failed toidentify thefactors,whichinclude: A. Flexibility in the management ofthe partnership. B. Building trustbetween the allies, X. Xxxxxxxx exchange ofinformation between partners, D. Constructive conflict management, E. Continuity of relatedand responsible for thecommunication systemof the firmand alliancestaff,and X. Xxxxxx the expectations ofpartners, among others. Among theconsiderations based onthe institutions forstrategic alliances, there is a regulatorypillarwithin whichthere are twodimensions: A. First, formal modesof market entryrequirementsaffectalliances and networks, governments discourage orprohibitacquisitionsfirms. B. And second, there are antitrustconcerns orconspiracy, in which firmsestablish allianceswithcompetitorsin the same industry, and thisraises...

Theoretical Background. This study does not follow a particular linguistic theory; instead, it adopts a descriptive approach and relies on conventional linguistic theories commonly employed in the analysis of languages.

Theoretical Background. This subsection, which is largely adapted from our previous work [106], presents the LA algorithm and its automata-related concepts. ∈ ⊆ S ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ǁ ǁ ⊆ ǁ ǁ ∈ ǁ ǁ ≥ ⊆ { | ∈ ∈ } { } S≥ Before continuing, we introduce the notations used in the section. For a finite alphabet A, A∗ denotes the set of all finite sequences with members in A. s denotes the empty sequence. For a sequence a A∗, a denotes the length (number of symbols) of a; in particular s = 0. For a finite set of sequences U A∗, U denotes the length of the longest sequence(s) in U . For a, b A∗, ab denotes the concatenation of sequences a and b. an is defined by a0 = s and an = an−1a, n 1. For U, V A∗, UV = ab a U, b V ; Un is defined by U 0 = s and Un = Un−1U, n 1. A[n] = 0≤i≤n Ai denotes the sets of sequences of length less than or equal to n with members in the alphabet A. For a sequence a A∗, b A∗ is said to be a prefix of a if there exists a sequence c A∗ such that a = bc. The set of all prefixes of a is denoted by pref (a); for U A∗, pref (U ) = a∈U pref (a). For a sequence a A∗, b A∗ is said to be a suffix of a if there exists a sequence c A∗ such that a = cb. For a finite set A, card(A) denotes the number of elements in A. We start by introducing some classic definitions from automata theory. ⊆ × −→ ∈ A deterministic finite automaton (DFA) M is a tuple (A, Q, q0, F, h), where: A is the finite input alphabet; Q is the finite set of states; q0 Q is the initial state; F Q is the set of final states; h is the next-state, h : Q A Q. A DFA is usually described by a state-transition diagram. −→ ∈ ∈ × The next-state function h can be naturally extended to a function h : Q A∗ Q. A state q Q is called reachable if there exists s A∗ such that h(q0, s) = q. M is called reachable if all states of M are reachable. Given q ∈ Q, the set Lq is defined by Lq = {s ∈ A∗ | h(q, s) ∈ F }. When q is the initial state of M , the set is called the language accepted by M and the simpler notation LM is used. Given Y ⊆ A∗, two states q1, q2 ∈ Q are called Y - equivalent if Lq1 ∩Y = Lq2 ∩Y . Otherwise q1 and q2 are called Y -distinguishable. If Y = A∗ then q1 and q2 are simply called equivalent or distinguishable, respec- tively. Two DFAs are called (Y -)equivalent or (Y -)distinguishable if their initial states are (Y -)equivalent or (Y -)distinguishable, respectively. A DFA M is called reduced if every two distinct states of M are distinguish- able. A DFA M is called minimal if any DFA that accepts LM has at lea...

Theoretical Background. As is well-known, the traditional view based on the ‘stress-timed’ and ‘syllable-timed’ dichotomy was introduced by [7]; [1] proposed the concept of isochrony, claiming that stress-timed languages exhibited regular inter-stress intervals (hence the name iso-accentual languages), whereas syllable- timed languages presented syllables of roughly the same length (hence the name iso-syllabic languages). Further investigation brought to the classification of most Romance languages as syllable-timed and of most Germanic and Slavonic languages as stress-timed. Some languages, e.g. Japanese and Tamil, did not fit in either category, but rather seemed to belong to a third rhythmic type based on the xxxx. However, various scholars did not find experimental evidence of isochrony at the foot nor at the syllable level (cp. [9]), concluding that the impression of syllable or stress- timing may merely be a matter of perception. Other authors (e.g. [3] and [4]) suggested that stress-timing and syllable-timing had to be considered as the poles of a continuum along which languages are scattered and proposed a set of phonological properties shared by the languages belonging to the same rhythmic group, the most important being: a) the presence vs. absence of vowel reduction; b) a complex vs. simple syllabic structure; c) the tendency of stress to attract phonological material and to build up heavy syllables vs. no such tendency. The more of these properties a language possesses, the more it is likely to be near the syllable-timing or the stress- timing end of the continuum. Among the different methods devised (e.g. [5], [8]), Xxxxx et alii [8] proposed three acoustic correlates of these phonological properties, namely the standard deviation of vocalic intervals ∆V (indicative of the presence/absence of vocalic reduction), the standard deviation of consonantal intervals ∆C (indicative of the complexity of the syllabic structure) and the vocalic percentage %V (indicative of both the above mentioned phonol- ogical properties). In their study, stress-timed languages resulted, as expected, in higher ∆V and ([2], [4], [8], [12], [13]).

Theoretical Background. ‌ The first part of this chapter addresses the main question in this research project: What forms and motivations characterize elite and popular religiosity, what are the patterns in the relationship between elite and popular religiosity, and how does this relate to the socio-economic status of Dutch-Turkish Muslims living in the Netherlands? Xxxxxx Xxxxxxxx (1956) argued that two levels of culture run through complex civilizations, the “great tradition of the reflective few” and the “little tradition of the unreflective many” (pp. 41-42). Elite and popular religiosity gain their place in society and its culture. In order to understand elite and popular religiosity, therefore, we first need to explore the meaning of great and little cultures, due to the close relationship between culture and religion (Xxxxx, 2012).

Theoretical Background. In various studies the effects and applicability of dynamic testing in educational settings have been studied (e.g., Xxxxxxx-Xxxxxxxxx, 2002a; Lidz, 2002, Resing 1997; Resing, Xxxxxxxx, Xx Xxxx & Xxxxx, 2009). Results revealed insights into children’s potential for learning, their need for instruction and their responses to feedback. A promising dynamic assessment approach, in which feedback is provided according to a hierarchical structured prompts system, is the graduated prompts approach (e.g., Xxxxxxxx & Xxxxx, 1987; Xxxxxx, Xxxxxxxxxx & Xxxxxx, 2009, Xxxx, 2000; Resing 1993, 2000). In this approach the provided feedback, both type and amount of feedback are supposed to be indicative for a child’s potential for learning; in addition, qualitative elements would in principle be of use to guide classroom recommendations (Xxxxx & Xxxxxx, 2006; 2008; Xxxxxxx & Lidz, 2007). Results of a reversal task after dynamic testing revealed additional information to guide recommendations (e.g., Xxxxx & Xxxxxx, 2006). Nevertheless, dynamic tests have not been fully incorporated into educational psychologists’ practice (Xxxxxxx, 2003; Xxxxxxxxxx, 2009; Xxxxxxx et al., 2007) for reasons of time constraint or lack of training opportunities (Deutsch & Xxxxxxxx, 2000; Xxxxx & Xxxxx, 1999), although advantages of dynamic testing have been acknowledged in the field of education. Two articles in which the value and application of dynamic assessment methods were investigated for educational psychologists (Xxxxxxx & Xxxxxxxx, 2000) and special education coordinators (Xxxxxxx & Xxxxxx, 2000) revealed that respondents valued dynamic assessment, in particular the information about learning processes and strategies, the focus on strengths and the potential of dynamic assessment in linking assessment to educational interventions by providing hands-on information for teachers. Psychological reports, including general outcomes of assessment and recommendations, would in principle be helpful means to gain insight into teacher preferences and expectations about the meaningfulness of dynamic assessment information. However, several studies showed that teachers appear to be critical readers, as far as psychological reports are concerned (e.g., Pelco, Xxxx, Xxxxxxx & Xxxxx, 2009) and, although report writing is an important professional role for psychologists, the reports have not served teachers well up till now. Reports often lack the practical and concrete recommendations teachers expect...

Theoretical Background. In order to understand the competition in the transatlantic air transport market, we need to understand what competition is, and what the variables that are possibly related to competition are. This chapter will outline the theoretical backgrounds of these concepts and provide an answer to the sub-question: “what is competition, and which variables are possibly related to it?” Therefore, firstly, the descriptions of competition and the variables possibly related to it will be given in a general sense. After that, we will put it in the perspective of aviation.